A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of a cytokine to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

The process of introducing a phosphate group on to a protein.

The cellular process in which a signal is conveyed to trigger a change in the activity or state of a cell. Signal transduction begins with reception of a signal (e.g. a ligand binding to a receptor or receptor activation by a stimulus such as light), or for signal transduction in the absence of ligand, signal-withdrawal or the activity of a constitutively active receptor. Signal transduction ends with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. regulation of transcription or regulation of a metabolic process. Signal transduction covers signaling from receptors located on the surface of the cell and signaling via molecules located within the cell. For signaling between cells, signal transduction is restricted to events at and within the receiving cell.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of a cytokine to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

The process in which a myeloid precursor cell acquires specializes features of an erythrocyte.

The modification of histone H3 by the addition of a phosphate group to a tyrosine residue at position 41 of the histone.

The process of introducing a phosphate group to a tyrosine residue of a JAK (Janus Activated Kinase) protein, thereby activating it.

The phosphorylation by a protein of one or more of its own amino acid residues (cis-autophosphorylation), or residues on an identical protein (trans-autophosphorylation).

The process in which STAT proteins (Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription) are activated by members of the JAK (janus activated kinase) family of tyrosine kinases, following the binding of physiological ligands to the growth hormone receptor. Once activated, STATs dimerize and translocate to the nucleus and modulate the expression of target genes.

An intracellular protein kinase cascade containing at least a MAPK, a MAPKK and a MAP3K. The cascade can also contain an additional tiers: the upstream MAP4K. The kinases in each tier phosphorylate and activate the kinase in the downstream tier to transmit a signal within a cell.

Any series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of an extracellular ligand to a receptor on the surface of the target cell, where the receptor possesses catalytic activity or is closely associated with an enzyme such as a protein kinase, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

Any process in which STAT proteins (Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription) and JAK (Janus Activated Kinase) proteins convey a signal to trigger a change in the activity or state of a cell. The receptor signaling pathway via JAK-STAT begins with activation of a receptor and proceeeds through STAT protein activation by members of the JAK family of tyrosine kinases. STAT proteins dimerize and subsequently translocate to the nucleus. The pathway ends with regulation of target gene expression by STAT proteins.

The phosphorylation of peptidyl-tyrosine to form peptidyl-O4'-phospho-L-tyrosine.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of a cytokine to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

The process in which a myeloid precursor cell acquires specializes features of an erythrocyte.

The process in which a precursor cell type acquires the specialized features of a T cell via a differentiation pathway dependent upon transit through the thymus.

The process in which a signal is passed on to downstream components within the cell, which become activated themselves to further propagate the signal and finally trigger a change in the function or state of the cell.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-12 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the introduction of a phosphate group to a tyrosine residue of a STAT (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription) protein.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-27 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires the specialized features of a natural killer cell.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate, or extent of dendritic cell cytokine production.

Any series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of an extracellular ligand to a receptor on the surface of the target cell, where the receptor possesses catalytic activity or is closely associated with an enzyme such as a protein kinase, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

The process of introducing a phosphate group to a tyrosine residue of a STAT (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription) protein.

The phosphorylation of peptidyl-tyrosine to form peptidyl-O4'-phospho-L-tyrosine.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the myeloid and lymphoid derived organ/tissue systems of the blood and other parts of the body over time, from formation to the mature structure. The site of hemopoiesis is variable during development, but occurs primarily in bone marrow or kidney in many adult vertebrates.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized precursor cell acquires specialized features of a lymphocyte. A lymphocyte is a leukocyte commonly found in the blood and lymph that has the characteristics of a large nucleus, a neutral staining cytoplasm, and prominent heterochromatin.

The process in which a precursor cell type acquires the specialized features of a B cell. A B cell is a lymphocyte of B lineage with the phenotype CD19-positive and capable of B cell mediated immunity.

The process in which a precursor cell type acquires characteristics of a more mature T-cell. A T cell is a type of lymphocyte whose definin characteristic is the expression of a T cell receptor complex.

The process in which a myeloid precursor cell acquires specializes features of an erythrocyte.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate, or extent of interleukin-10 production.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate, or extent of interleukin-12 production.

The process in which a signal is passed on to downstream components within the cell, which become activated themselves to further propagate the signal and finally trigger a change in the function or state of the cell.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-15 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-4 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-2 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-7 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-9 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-21 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-23 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

The process of regulating the proliferation and elimination of T cells such that the total number of T cells within a whole or part of an organism is stable over time in the absence of an outside stimulus.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of FasL.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of T-helper 1 cell differentiation.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of transcription from an RNA polymerase II promoter.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the JAK-STAT signaling pathway activity.

The process in which the anatomical structures of blood vessels are generated and organized. The blood vessel is the vasculature carrying blood.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of T cell activation.

A first transient wave of blood cell production that, in vertebrates, gives rise to erythrocytes (red blood cells) and myeloid cells.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of a type I interferon to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription. Type I interferons include the interferon-alpha, beta, delta, episilon, zeta, kappa, tau, and omega gene families.

The process in which STAT proteins (Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription) are activated by members of the JAK (janus activated kinase) family of tyrosine kinases, following the binding of physiological ligands to the growth hormone receptor. Once activated, STATs dimerize and translocate to the nucleus and modulate the expression of target genes.

Any process that modulates the occurrence or rate of T cell death by apoptotic process.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of thymocyte death by apoptotic process.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an interleukin-2 stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an interleukin-15 stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an interleukin-9 stimulus.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of complement-dependent cytotoxicity.

Any process that increases the concentration of calcium ions in the cytosol.

Any process that increases the concentration of calcium ions in the cytosol.

Any process that increases the concentration of calcium ions in the cytosol.

Any process in which STAT proteins (Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription) and JAK (Janus Activated Kinase) proteins convey a signal to trigger a change in the activity or state of a cell. The receptor signaling pathway via JAK-STAT begins with activation of a receptor and proceeeds through STAT protein activation by members of the JAK family of tyrosine kinases. STAT proteins dimerize and subsequently translocate to the nucleus. The pathway ends with regulation of target gene expression by STAT proteins.

The process of introducing a phosphate group to a tyrosine residue of a STAT (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription) protein.

The process of introducing a phosphate group to a tyrosine residue of a STAT (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription) protein.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of a cytokine to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

The process in which a signal is passed on to downstream components within the cell, which become activated themselves to further propagate the signal and finally trigger a change in the function or state of the cell.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-4 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an interleukin-3 stimulus.

The process of regulating the proliferation and elimination of T cells such that the total number of T cells within a whole or part of an organism is stable over time in the absence of an outside stimulus.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of receptor signaling via JAK-STAT.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an antibiotic stimulus. An antibiotic is a chemical substance produced by a microorganism which has the capacity to inhibit the growth of or to kill other microorganisms.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an antibiotic stimulus. An antibiotic is a chemical substance produced by a microorganism which has the capacity to inhibit the growth of or to kill other microorganisms.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of a nitric oxide synthase enzyme.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of a nitric oxide synthase enzyme.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interferon-gamma to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription. Interferon gamma is the only member of the type II interferon found so far.

Any process that modulates the rate, frequency or extent of the series of molecular events generated as a consequence of interferon-gamma binding to a cell surface receptor.

The process in which STAT proteins (Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription) are activated by members of the JAK (janus activated kinase) family of tyrosine kinases, following the binding of physiological ligands to the growth hormone receptor. Once activated, STATs dimerize and translocate to the nucleus and modulate the expression of target genes.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-6 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an interleukin-4 stimulus.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-35 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cold-induced thermogenesis.

The initiation of the activity of the inactive enzyme MAP kinase kinase (MAPKK).

The initiation of the activity of the inactive enzyme MAP kinase kinase (MAPKK).

The initiation of the activity of the inactive enzyme MAP kinase kinase (MAPKK).

The change in morphology and behavior of a microglial cell resulting from exposure to a cytokine, chemokine, cellular ligand, or soluble factor.

The change in morphology and behavior of a microglial cell resulting from exposure to a cytokine, chemokine, cellular ligand, or soluble factor.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate, or extent of dendritic cell cytokine production.

A programmed cell death process which begins when a cell receives an internal (e.g. DNA damage) or external signal (e.g. an extracellular death ligand), and proceeds through a series of biochemical events (signaling pathway phase) which trigger an execution phase. The execution phase is the last step of an apoptotic process, and is typically characterized by rounding-up of the cell, retraction of pseudopodes, reduction of cellular volume (pyknosis), chromatin condensation, nuclear fragmentation (karyorrhexis), plasma membrane blebbing and fragmentation of the cell into apoptotic bodies. When the execution phase is completed, the cell has died.

Any process that initiates the activity of the inactive enzyme cysteine-type endopeptidase in the context of an apoptotic process.

Any process that initiates the activity of the inactive enzyme cysteine-type endopeptidase in the context of an apoptotic process.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of oxidative stress, a state often resulting from exposure to high levels of reactive oxygen species, e.g. superoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radicals.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of oxidative stress, a state often resulting from exposure to high levels of reactive oxygen species, e.g. superoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radicals.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of oxidative stress, a state often resulting from exposure to high levels of reactive oxygen species, e.g. superoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radicals.

The cellular process in which a signal is conveyed to trigger a change in the activity or state of a cell. Signal transduction begins with reception of a signal (e.g. a ligand binding to a receptor or receptor activation by a stimulus such as light), or for signal transduction in the absence of ligand, signal-withdrawal or the activity of a constitutively active receptor. Signal transduction ends with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. regulation of transcription or regulation of a metabolic process. Signal transduction covers signaling from receptors located on the surface of the cell and signaling via molecules located within the cell. For signaling between cells, signal transduction is restricted to events at and within the receiving cell.

A series of molecular signals that proceeds with an activated receptor promoting the exchange of GDP for GTP on the alpha-subunit of an associated heterotrimeric G-protein complex. The GTP-bound activated alpha-G-protein then dissociates from the beta- and gamma-subunits to further transmit the signal within the cell. The pathway begins with receptor-ligand interaction, or for basal GPCR signaling the pathway begins with the receptor activating its G protein in the absence of an agonist, and ends with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription. The pathway can start from the plasma membrane, Golgi or nuclear membrane (PMID:24568158 and PMID:16902576).

A series of molecular signals that proceeds with an activated receptor promoting the exchange of GDP for GTP on the alpha-subunit of an associated heterotrimeric G-protein complex. The GTP-bound activated alpha-G-protein then dissociates from the beta- and gamma-subunits to further transmit the signal within the cell. The pathway begins with receptor-ligand interaction, or for basal GPCR signaling the pathway begins with the receptor activating its G protein in the absence of an agonist, and ends with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription. The pathway can start from the plasma membrane, Golgi or nuclear membrane (PMID:24568158 and PMID:16902576).

A series of molecular signals that proceeds with an activated receptor promoting the exchange of GDP for GTP on the alpha-subunit of an associated heterotrimeric G-protein complex. The GTP-bound activated alpha-G-protein then dissociates from the beta- and gamma-subunits to further transmit the signal within the cell. The pathway begins with receptor-ligand interaction, or for basal GPCR signaling the pathway begins with the receptor activating its G protein in the absence of an agonist, and ends with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription. The pathway can start from the plasma membrane, Golgi or nuclear membrane (PMID:24568158 and PMID:16902576).

Any process in which STAT proteins (Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription) and JAK (Janus Activated Kinase) proteins convey a signal to trigger a change in the activity or state of a cell. The receptor signaling pathway via JAK-STAT begins with activation of a receptor and proceeeds through STAT protein activation by members of the JAK family of tyrosine kinases. STAT proteins dimerize and subsequently translocate to the nucleus. The pathway ends with regulation of target gene expression by STAT proteins.

Any process in which STAT proteins (Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription) and JAK (Janus Activated Kinase) proteins convey a signal to trigger a change in the activity or state of a cell. The receptor signaling pathway via JAK-STAT begins with activation of a receptor and proceeeds through STAT protein activation by members of the JAK family of tyrosine kinases. STAT proteins dimerize and subsequently translocate to the nucleus. The pathway ends with regulation of target gene expression by STAT proteins.

Any process in which STAT proteins (Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription) and JAK (Janus Activated Kinase) proteins convey a signal to trigger a change in the activity or state of a cell. The receptor signaling pathway via JAK-STAT begins with activation of a receptor and proceeeds through STAT protein activation by members of the JAK family of tyrosine kinases. STAT proteins dimerize and subsequently translocate to the nucleus. The pathway ends with regulation of target gene expression by STAT proteins.

Any process in which STAT proteins (Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription) and JAK (Janus Activated Kinase) proteins convey a signal to trigger a change in the activity or state of a cell. The receptor signaling pathway via JAK-STAT begins with activation of a receptor and proceeeds through STAT protein activation by members of the JAK family of tyrosine kinases. STAT proteins dimerize and subsequently translocate to the nucleus. The pathway ends with regulation of target gene expression by STAT proteins.

The process of introducing a phosphate group to a tyrosine residue of a STAT (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription) protein.

The process of introducing a phosphate group to a tyrosine residue of a STAT (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription) protein.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the mesoderm over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The mesoderm is the middle germ layer that develops into muscle, bone, cartilage, blood and connective tissue.

The sequential process in which the multiple coagulation factors of the blood interact, ultimately resulting in the formation of an insoluble fibrin clot; it may be divided into three stages: stage 1, the formation of intrinsic and extrinsic prothrombin converting principle; stage 2, the formation of thrombin; stage 3, the formation of stable fibrin polymers.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of cell proliferation.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of cell proliferation.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of cell proliferation.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the rate or extent of cell proliferation.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the rate or extent of cell proliferation.

A series of molecular signals in which an intracellular signal is conveyed to trigger the apoptotic death of a cell. The pathway is induced in response to oxidative stress, a state often resulting from exposure to high levels of reactive oxygen species, and ends when the execution phase of apoptosis is triggered.

A series of molecular signals in which an intracellular signal is conveyed to trigger the apoptotic death of a cell. The pathway is induced in response to oxidative stress, a state often resulting from exposure to high levels of reactive oxygen species, and ends when the execution phase of apoptosis is triggered.

A series of molecular signals in which an intracellular signal is conveyed to trigger the apoptotic death of a cell. The pathway is induced in response to oxidative stress, a state often resulting from exposure to high levels of reactive oxygen species, and ends when the execution phase of apoptosis is triggered.

A series of molecular signals mediated by the detection of a hormone.

A series of molecular signals mediated by the detection of a hormone.

A series of molecular signals mediated by the detection of a hormone.

Any process that decreases the rate or extent of cardiac cell apoptotic process, a form of programmed cell death induced by external or internal signals that trigger the activity of proteolytic caspases whose actions dismantle a cardiac muscle cell and result in its death.

Any process that decreases the rate or extent of cardiac cell apoptotic process, a form of programmed cell death induced by external or internal signals that trigger the activity of proteolytic caspases whose actions dismantle a cardiac muscle cell and result in its death.

Any process that increases the frequency, rate or extent of cell-substrate adhesion. Cell-substrate adhesion is the attachment of a cell to the underlying substrate via adhesion molecules.

Any process that increases the frequency, rate or extent of cell-substrate adhesion. Cell-substrate adhesion is the attachment of a cell to the underlying substrate via adhesion molecules.

Any process that increases the frequency, rate or extent of cell-substrate adhesion. Cell-substrate adhesion is the attachment of a cell to the underlying substrate via adhesion molecules.

Any process that increases the frequency or rate of receptor biosynthesis. Receptor biosynthesis is the collection of chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of a receptor molecule, a macromolecule that undergoes combination with a hormone, neurotransmitter, drug or intracellular messenger to initiate a change in cell function.

Any process that increases the frequency or rate of receptor biosynthesis. Receptor biosynthesis is the collection of chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of a receptor molecule, a macromolecule that undergoes combination with a hormone, neurotransmitter, drug or intracellular messenger to initiate a change in cell function.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of signal transduction mediated by the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase cascade.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of signal transduction mediated by the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase cascade.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of signal transduction mediated by the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase cascade.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of a cytokine to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the rate or extent of cell adhesion to another cell.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the rate or extent of cell adhesion to another cell.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the rate or extent of cell adhesion to another cell.

Assembly of actin filaments by the addition of actin monomers to a filament.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized myeloid precursor cell acquires the specialized features of any cell of the myeloid leukocyte, megakaryocyte, thrombocyte, or erythrocyte lineages.

The process in which relatively unspecialized cells, e.g. embryonic or regenerative cells, acquire specialized structural and/or functional features that characterize the cells, tissues, or organs of the mature organism or some other relatively stable phase of the organism's life history. Differentiation includes the processes involved in commitment of a cell to a specific fate and its subsequent development to the mature state.

The process in which relatively unspecialized cells, e.g. embryonic or regenerative cells, acquire specialized structural and/or functional features that characterize the cells, tissues, or organs of the mature organism or some other relatively stable phase of the organism's life history. Differentiation includes the processes involved in commitment of a cell to a specific fate and its subsequent development to the mature state.

The process in which a precursor cell type acquires the specialized features of a B cell. A B cell is a lymphocyte of B lineage with the phenotype CD19-positive and capable of B cell mediated immunity.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cell migration.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cell migration.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cell migration.

The regrowth of axons following their loss or damage.

The regrowth of axons following their loss or damage.

The regrowth of axons following their loss or damage.

Any series of molecular signals generated as a consequence of a mineralocorticoid binding to its receptor.

Any series of molecular signals generated as a consequence of a mineralocorticoid binding to its receptor.

Any series of molecular signals generated as a consequence of a mineralocorticoid binding to its receptor.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the regulated release of insulin.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the regulated release of insulin.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the regulated release of insulin.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a lipopolysaccharide stimulus; lipopolysaccharide is a major component of the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a lipopolysaccharide stimulus; lipopolysaccharide is a major component of the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria.

Any process that activates or increases the activity of a phosphoprotein phosphatase.

Any process that activates or increases the activity of a phosphoprotein phosphatase.

Any process that activates or increases the activity of a phosphoprotein phosphatase.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate, or extent of interleukin-10 production.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate, or extent of interleukin-12 production.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate, or extent of interleukin-1 beta production.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate, or extent of interleukin-1 beta production.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate, or extent of interleukin-1 beta production.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate, or extent of tumor necrosis factor production.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate, or extent of tumor necrosis factor production.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a hydroperoxide stimulus. Hydroperoxides are monosubstitution products of hydrogen peroxide, HOOH.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a hydroperoxide stimulus. Hydroperoxides are monosubstitution products of hydrogen peroxide, HOOH.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a hydroperoxide stimulus. Hydroperoxides are monosubstitution products of hydrogen peroxide, HOOH.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of a tumor necrosis factor to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of a tumor necrosis factor to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of a tumor necrosis factor to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

Cell death in a host resulting from activation of host endogenous cellular processes after direct or indirect interaction with a symbiont (defined as the smaller of two, or more, organisms engaged in symbiosis, a close interaction encompassing mutualism through parasitism). An example of direct interaction is contact with penetrating hyphae of a fungus; an example of indirect interaction is encountering symbiont-secreted molecules.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a tumor necrosis factor stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a tumor necrosis factor stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a tumor necrosis factor stimulus.

The stages of blood cell formation that take place after completion of embryonic development.

The modification of histone H3 by the addition of a phosphate group to a tyrosine residue at position 41 of the histone.

The modification of histone H3 by the addition of a phosphate group to a tyrosine residue at position 41 of the histone.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-12 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-12 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-12 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-4 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

The phosphorylation by a protein of one or more of its own tyrosine amino acid residues, or a tyrosine residue on an identical protein.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-2 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-2 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interleukin-2 to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of T cell proliferation.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of T cell proliferation.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of T cell proliferation.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of activated T cell proliferation.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of activated T cell proliferation.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of activated T cell proliferation.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the introduction of a phosphate group to a tyrosine residue of a STAT (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription) protein.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of tumor necrosis factor, an inflammatory cytokine produced by macrophages/monocytes during acute inflammation and which is responsible for a diverse range of signaling events within cells, leading to necrosis or apoptosis.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of tumor necrosis factor, an inflammatory cytokine produced by macrophages/monocytes during acute inflammation and which is responsible for a diverse range of signaling events within cells, leading to necrosis or apoptosis.

The process of introducing a phosphate group to a tyrosine residue of a JAK (Janus Activated Kinase) protein, thereby activating it.

The process of regulating the proliferation and elimination of T cells such that the total number of T cells within a whole or part of an organism is stable over time in the absence of an outside stimulus.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cell death by apoptotic process.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cell death by apoptotic process.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of cell death by apoptotic process.

Any process that increases the frequency, rate or extent of DNA binding. DNA binding is any process in which a gene product interacts selectively with DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

Any process that increases the frequency, rate or extent of DNA binding. DNA binding is any process in which a gene product interacts selectively with DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

Any process that increases the frequency, rate or extent of DNA binding. DNA binding is any process in which a gene product interacts selectively with DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

Any process that stops or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of DNA binding. DNA binding is any process in which a gene product interacts selectively with DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

Any process that stops or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of DNA binding. DNA binding is any process in which a gene product interacts selectively with DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of cell death by apoptotic process in neurons.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of cell death by apoptotic process in neurons.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of FasL.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of MHC class II.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of MHC class II.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of nitric oxide.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of nitric oxide.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of nitric oxide.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of nitric oxide.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of nitric oxide.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of nitric oxide.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cell differentiation.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cell differentiation.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cell differentiation.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of T-helper 1 cell differentiation.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of heart contraction.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of heart contraction.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of heart contraction.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of transcription from an RNA polymerase II promoter.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of transcription from an RNA polymerase II promoter.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of receptor signaling via JAK-STAT.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of Ras protein signal transduction.

The phosphorylation by a protein of one or more of its own amino acid residues (cis-autophosphorylation), or residues on an identical protein (trans-autophosphorylation).

The phosphorylation by a protein of one or more of its own amino acid residues (cis-autophosphorylation), or residues on an identical protein (trans-autophosphorylation).

The phosphorylation by a protein of one or more of its own amino acid residues (cis-autophosphorylation), or residues on an identical protein (trans-autophosphorylation).

The series of molecular signals generated as a consequence of a platelet-derived growth factor receptor binding to one of its physiological ligands.

The series of molecular signals generated as a consequence of a platelet-derived growth factor receptor binding to one of its physiological ligands.

The series of molecular signals generated as a consequence of a platelet-derived growth factor receptor binding to one of its physiological ligands.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of lymph nodes over time, from their formation to the mature structure. A lymph node is a round, oval, or bean shaped structure localized in clusters along the lymphatic vessels, with a distinct internal structure including specialized vasculature and B- and T-zones for the activation of lymphocytes.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of interleukin-1 beta.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of interleukin-1 beta.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the inflammatory response, the immediate defensive reaction (by vertebrate tissue) to infection or injury caused by chemical or physical agents.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the inflammatory response, the immediate defensive reaction (by vertebrate tissue) to infection or injury caused by chemical or physical agents.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the inflammatory response, the immediate defensive reaction (by vertebrate tissue) to infection or injury caused by chemical or physical agents.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the inflammatory response.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the inflammatory response.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the inflammatory response.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the phosphorylation of peptidyl-tyrosine.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the phosphorylation of peptidyl-tyrosine.

Any process that modulates the frequency or amplitude of synaptic transmission, the process of communication from a neuron to a target (neuron, muscle, or secretory cell) across a synapse. Amplitude, in this case, refers to the change in postsynaptic membrane potential due to a single instance of synaptic transmission.

Any process that modulates the frequency or amplitude of synaptic transmission, the process of communication from a neuron to a target (neuron, muscle, or secretory cell) across a synapse. Amplitude, in this case, refers to the change in postsynaptic membrane potential due to a single instance of synaptic transmission.

Any process that modulates the frequency or amplitude of synaptic transmission, the process of communication from a neuron to a target (neuron, muscle, or secretory cell) across a synapse. Amplitude, in this case, refers to the change in postsynaptic membrane potential due to a single instance of synaptic transmission.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of activation.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of activation.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of activation.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of T cell activation.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of activity of a transcription factor, any factor involved in the initiation or regulation of transcription.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of activity of a transcription factor, any factor involved in the initiation or regulation of transcription.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of activity of a transcription factor, any factor involved in the initiation or regulation of transcription.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of a nitric oxide synthase enzyme.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of a nitric oxide synthase enzyme.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of a nitric oxide synthase enzyme.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the directed movement of calcium ions into, out of or within a cell, or between cells, by means of some agent such as a transporter or pore.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the directed movement of calcium ions into, out of or within a cell, or between cells, by means of some agent such as a transporter or pore.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the directed movement of calcium ions into, out of or within a cell, or between cells, by means of some agent such as a transporter or pore.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interferon-gamma to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription. Interferon gamma is the only member of the type II interferon found so far.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interferon-gamma to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription. Interferon gamma is the only member of the type II interferon found so far.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of interferon-gamma to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription. Interferon gamma is the only member of the type II interferon found so far.

The series of molecular signals generated as a consequence of growth hormone receptor binding to its physiological ligand.

The series of molecular signals generated as a consequence of growth hormone receptor binding to its physiological ligand.

The series of molecular signals generated as a consequence of growth hormone receptor binding to its physiological ligand.

The process in which STAT proteins (Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription) are activated by members of the JAK (janus activated kinase) family of tyrosine kinases, following the binding of physiological ligands to the growth hormone receptor. Once activated, STATs dimerize and translocate to the nucleus and modulate the expression of target genes.

The process in which STAT proteins (Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription) are activated by members of the JAK (janus activated kinase) family of tyrosine kinases, following the binding of physiological ligands to the growth hormone receptor. Once activated, STATs dimerize and translocate to the nucleus and modulate the expression of target genes.

Any process that increases the rate, frequency or extent of the growth hormone receptor signaling pathway. The growth hormone receptor signaling pathway is the series of molecular signals generated as a consequence of growth hormone receptor binding to its physiological ligand.

Any process that increases the rate, frequency or extent of the growth hormone receptor signaling pathway. The growth hormone receptor signaling pathway is the series of molecular signals generated as a consequence of growth hormone receptor binding to its physiological ligand.

Any process that decreases the rate or frequency of cell death. Cell death is the specific activation or halting of processes within a cell so that its vital functions markedly cease, rather than simply deteriorating gradually over time, which culminates in cell death.

Any process that decreases the rate or frequency of cell death. Cell death is the specific activation or halting of processes within a cell so that its vital functions markedly cease, rather than simply deteriorating gradually over time, which culminates in cell death.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the mammary gland epithelium over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The mammary gland is a large compound sebaceous gland that in female mammals is modified to secrete milk.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the mammary gland epithelium over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The mammary gland is a large compound sebaceous gland that in female mammals is modified to secrete milk.

Any process that modulates the occurrence or rate of T cell death by apoptotic process.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of thymocyte death by apoptotic process.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an interleukin-4 stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an interleukin-4 stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an interleukin-4 stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an interleukin-12 stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an interleukin-12 stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an interleukin-12 stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a lipopolysaccharide stimulus; lipopolysaccharide is a major component of the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a cytokine stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a dexamethasone stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor stimulus.

A series of molecular signals in which a signal is conveyed from the cell surface to trigger the apoptotic death of a cell. The pathway starts with either a ligand binding to a cell surface receptor, or a ligand being withdrawn from a cell surface receptor (e.g. in the case of signaling by dependence receptors), and ends when the execution phase of apoptosis is triggered.

A series of molecular signals in which a signal is conveyed from the cell surface to trigger the apoptotic death of a cell. The pathway starts with either a ligand binding to a cell surface receptor, or a ligand being withdrawn from a cell surface receptor (e.g. in the case of signaling by dependence receptors), and ends when the execution phase of apoptosis is triggered.

Any process that initiates the activity of an inactive cysteine-type endopeptidase involved in the apoptotic signaling pathway.

Any process that initiates the activity of an inactive cysteine-type endopeptidase involved in the apoptotic signaling pathway.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an interleukin-7 stimulus.

A series of molecular signals that conveys information from the postsynapse to the nucleus via cytoskeletal transport of a protein from a postsynapse to the component to the nucleus where it affects biochemical processes that occur in the nucleus (e.g DNA transcription, mRNA splicing, or DNA/histone modifications).

A series of molecular signals that conveys information from the postsynapse to the nucleus via cytoskeletal transport of a protein from a postsynapse to the component to the nucleus where it affects biochemical processes that occur in the nucleus (e.g DNA transcription, mRNA splicing, or DNA/histone modifications).

A series of molecular signals that conveys information from the postsynapse to the nucleus via cytoskeletal transport of a protein from a postsynapse to the component to the nucleus where it affects biochemical processes that occur in the nucleus (e.g DNA transcription, mRNA splicing, or DNA/histone modifications).

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cold-induced thermogenesis.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of satellite cell proliferation; dependent on specific growth factor activity such as fibroblast growth factors and transforming growth factor beta.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of satellite cell proliferation; dependent on specific growth factor activity such as fibroblast growth factors and transforming growth factor beta.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of sprouting angiogenesis.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of sprouting angiogenesis.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of epithelial cell apoptotic process.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of epithelial cell apoptotic process.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of receptor signaling pathway via STAT.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of dendritic cell apoptotic process.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of apoptotic signaling pathway.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of extrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway in absence of ligand.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

A membrane-bounded organelle of eukaryotic cells in which chromosomes are housed and replicated. In most cells, the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes except the organellar chromosomes, and is the site of RNA synthesis and processing. In some species, or in specialized cell types, RNA metabolism or DNA replication may be absent.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

A membrane-bounded organelle of eukaryotic cells in which chromosomes are housed and replicated. In most cells, the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes except the organellar chromosomes, and is the site of RNA synthesis and processing. In some species, or in specialized cell types, RNA metabolism or DNA replication may be absent.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

A membrane-bounded organelle of eukaryotic cells in which chromosomes are housed and replicated. In most cells, the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes except the organellar chromosomes, and is the site of RNA synthesis and processing. In some species, or in specialized cell types, RNA metabolism or DNA replication may be absent.

A vacuole to which materials ingested by endocytosis are delivered.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

A vesicle that is released into the extracellular region by fusion of the limiting endosomal membrane of a multivesicular body with the plasma membrane. Extracellular exosomes, also simply called exosomes, have a diameter of about 40-100 nm.

That part of the nuclear content other than the chromosomes or the nucleolus.

That part of the nuclear content other than the chromosomes or the nucleolus.

That part of the nuclear content other than the chromosomes or the nucleolus.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

A membrane raft that forms small pit, depression, or invagination that communicates with the outside of a cell and extends inward, indenting the cytoplasm and the cell membrane. Examples include flask-shaped invaginations of the plasma membrane in adipocytes associated with caveolin proteins, and minute pits or incuppings of the cell membrane formed during pinocytosis. Caveolae may be pinched off to form free vesicles within the cytoplasm.

A membrane raft that forms small pit, depression, or invagination that communicates with the outside of a cell and extends inward, indenting the cytoplasm and the cell membrane. Examples include flask-shaped invaginations of the plasma membrane in adipocytes associated with caveolin proteins, and minute pits or incuppings of the cell membrane formed during pinocytosis. Caveolae may be pinched off to form free vesicles within the cytoplasm.

Small region on the surface of a cell that anchors the cell to the extracellular matrix and that forms a point of termination of actin filaments.

Small region on the surface of a cell that anchors the cell to the extracellular matrix and that forms a point of termination of actin filaments.

Small region on the surface of a cell that anchors the cell to the extracellular matrix and that forms a point of termination of actin filaments.

The dense fibrillar network lying on the inner side of the nuclear membrane.

The dense fibrillar network lying on the inner side of the nuclear membrane.

The dense fibrillar network lying on the inner side of the nuclear membrane.

The volume enclosed by the membrane of an endosome.

Any of the small (10-200 nm), heterogeneous, highly dynamic, sterol- and sphingolipid-enriched membrane domains that compartmentalize cellular processes. Small rafts can sometimes be stabilized to form larger platforms through protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions.

Any of the small (10-200 nm), heterogeneous, highly dynamic, sterol- and sphingolipid-enriched membrane domains that compartmentalize cellular processes. Small rafts can sometimes be stabilized to form larger platforms through protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions.

The part of a synapse that is part of the post-synaptic cell.

The part of a synapse that is part of the post-synaptic cell.

A synapse that uses glutamate as a neurotransmitter.

A synapse that uses glutamate as a neurotransmitter.

A synapse that uses glutamate as a neurotransmitter.

A synapse that uses glutamate as a neurotransmitter.