Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a stimulus indicating an increase or decrease in the concentration of solutes outside the organism or cell.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of X-ray radiation. An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength in the range of 10 nanometers to 100 picometers (corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 PHz to 3 EHz).

The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of betaine (N-trimethylglycine) from the oxidation of choline.

The formation of a protein homotetramer, a macromolecular structure consisting of four noncovalently associated identical subunits.

The anaerobic enzymatic conversion of organic compounds, especially carbohydrates, coupling the oxidation and reduction of NAD/H and the generation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.