The series of molecular signals generated as a consequence of the insulin receptor binding to insulin.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of macroautophagy.

The directed movement of transferrin into, out of or within a cell, or between cells, by means of some agent such as a transporter or pore.

A process in which an ion is transported across a membrane.

Any process that reduces the pH of the phagosome, measured by the concentration of the hydrogen ion.

The directed movement of a proton across a membrane.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

The lipid bilayer surrounding the lysosome and separating its contents from the cell cytoplasm.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

A large protein complex that catalyzes the synthesis or hydrolysis of ATP by a rotational mechanism, coupled to the transport of protons across a membrane. The complex comprises a membrane sector (F0, V0, or A0) that carries out proton transport and a cytoplasmic compartment sector (F1, V1, or A1) that catalyzes ATP synthesis or hydrolysis. Two major types have been characterized: V-type ATPases couple ATP hydrolysis to the transport of protons across a concentration gradient, whereas F-type ATPases, also known as ATP synthases, normally run in the reverse direction to utilize energy from a proton concentration or electrochemical gradient to synthesize ATP. A third type, A-type ATPases have been found in archaea, and are closely related to eukaryotic V-type ATPases but are reversible.

A vesicle that is released into the extracellular region by fusion of the limiting endosomal membrane of a multivesicular body with the plasma membrane. Extracellular exosomes, also simply called exosomes, have a diameter of about 40-100 nm.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

A vesicle found in the cytoplasm of a cell.

A vesicle found in the cytoplasm of a cell.

The region of a polarized cell that forms a tip or is distal to a base. For example, in a polarized epithelial cell, the apical region has an exposed surface and lies opposite to the basal lamina that separates the epithelium from other tissue.

The region of a polarized cell that forms a tip or is distal to a base. For example, in a polarized epithelial cell, the apical region has an exposed surface and lies opposite to the basal lamina that separates the epithelium from other tissue.