Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a copper ion stimulus.

The directed movement of copper (Cu) ions into, out of or within a cell, or between cells, by means of some agent such as a transporter or pore.

The directed movement of copper (Cu) ions into, out of or within a cell, or between cells, by means of some agent such as a transporter or pore.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a copper ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a metal ion stimulus.

The directed movement of copper (Cu) ions into, out of or within a cell, or between cells, by means of some agent such as a transporter or pore.

Any process involved in the maintenance of an internal steady state of copper ions at the level of a cell.

A process in which an ion is transported across a membrane.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving biological pigments e.g. melanin, occurring as part of the development of an organ or organism.

Any process involved in the maintenance of an internal steady state of copper ions at the level of a cell.

The directed movement of copper ions out of a cell or organelle.

The directed movement of copper ions into a cell or organelle.

The process of binding or confining calcium ions such that they are separated from other components of a biological system.

The directed movement of copper ions out of a cell or organelle.

The directed movement of copper (Cu) ions into, out of or within a cell, or between cells, by means of some agent such as a transporter or pore.

The directed movement of copper (Cu) ions into, out of or within a cell, or between cells, by means of some agent such as a transporter or pore.

The regulated release of milk from the mammary glands and the period of time that a mother lactates to feed her young.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a manganese ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a zinc ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a copper ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a copper ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a copper ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a copper ion stimulus.

Any process that reduces or removes the toxicity of copper ion. These include transport of copper away from sensitive areas and to compartments or complexes whose purpose is sequestration of copper ion.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of gene expression. Gene expression is the process in which a gene's coding sequence is converted into a mature gene product or products (proteins or RNA). This includes the production of an RNA transcript as well as any processing to produce a mature RNA product or an mRNA or circRNA (for protein-coding genes) and the translation of that mRNA or circRNA into protein. Protein maturation is included when required to form an active form of a product from an inactive precursor form.

Any process involved in the maintenance of an internal steady state of zinc ions at the level of a cell.

The regulated release of milk from the mammary glands and the period of time that a mother lactates to feed her young.

Any biological process in an organism that recurs with a regularity of approximately 24 hours.

The directed movement of copper ions into a cell or organelle.

A process that contributes to the delivery of copper ions to a target protein.

The process of binding or confining calcium ions such that they are separated from other components of a biological system.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a cAMP (cyclic AMP, adenosine 3',5'-cyclophosphate) stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a manganese ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a manganese ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a prolactin stimulus. The anterior pituitary hormone prolactin has a number of roles including being essential for lactation.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of a blood vessel over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The blood vessel is the vasculature carrying blood.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of a blood vessel over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The blood vessel is the vasculature carrying blood.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the embryo in the uterus over time, from formation of the zygote in the oviduct, to birth. An example of this process is found in Mus musculus.

The process that results in the movement of cytochrome c from the mitochondrial intermembrane space into the cytosol, which is part of the apoptotic signaling pathway and leads to caspase activation.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the liver over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The liver is an exocrine gland which secretes bile and functions in metabolism of protein and carbohydrate and fat, synthesizes substances involved in the clotting of the blood, synthesizes vitamin A, detoxifies poisonous substances, stores glycogen, and breaks down worn-out erythrocytes.

The reorganization or renovation of existing blood vessels.

The reorganization or renovation of existing blood vessels.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP that accompanies the oxidation of a metabolite through the operation of the respiratory chain. Oxidation of compounds establishes a proton gradient across the membrane, providing the energy for ATP synthesis.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP that accompanies the oxidation of a metabolite through the operation of the respiratory chain. Oxidation of compounds establishes a proton gradient across the membrane, providing the energy for ATP synthesis.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving tryptophan, the chiral amino acid 2-amino-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)propanoic acid.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving tryptophan, the chiral amino acid 2-amino-3-(1H-indol-3-yl)propanoic acid.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving tyrosine, an aromatic amino acid, 2-amino-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)propanoic acid.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving any of a group of physiologically important biogenic amines that possess a catechol (3,4-dihydroxyphenyl) nucleus and are derivatives of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylethylamine.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving any of a group of physiologically important biogenic amines that possess a catechol (3,4-dihydroxyphenyl) nucleus and are derivatives of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylethylamine.

Any process involved in the maintenance of an internal steady state of copper ions at the level of a cell.

Any process involved in the maintenance of an internal steady state of copper ions at the level of a cell.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of a mitochondrion; includes mitochondrial morphogenesis and distribution, and replication of the mitochondrial genome as well as synthesis of new mitochondrial components.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of a mitochondrion; includes mitochondrial morphogenesis and distribution, and replication of the mitochondrial genome as well as synthesis of new mitochondrial components.

The specific movement from place to place of an organism in response to external or internal stimuli. Locomotion of a whole organism in a manner dependent upon some combination of that organism's internal state and external conditions.

The specific movement from place to place of an organism in response to external or internal stimuli. Locomotion of a whole organism in a manner dependent upon some combination of that organism's internal state and external conditions.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an iron(III) ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a manganese ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a manganese ion stimulus.

Any process that reduces or removes the toxicity of copper ion. These include transport of copper away from sensitive areas and to compartments or complexes whose purpose is sequestration of copper ion.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a lead ion stimulus.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of gene expression. Gene expression is the process in which a gene's coding sequence is converted into a mature gene product or products (proteins or RNA). This includes the production of an RNA transcript as well as any processing to produce a mature RNA product or an mRNA or circRNA (for protein-coding genes) and the translation of that mRNA or circRNA into protein. Protein maturation is included when required to form an active form of a product from an inactive precursor form.

Any process that increases the rate, frequency or extent of the formation of a lamellipodium, a thin sheetlike extension of the surface of a migrating cell.

Any process that increases the rate, frequency or extent of the formation of a lamellipodium, a thin sheetlike extension of the surface of a migrating cell.

The directed movement of copper ions into a cell or organelle.

The directed movement of copper ions into a cell or organelle.

The modification of peptidyl-lysine.

The modification of peptidyl-lysine.

Any process, acting at the cellular level, involved in removing superoxide radicals (O2-) from a cell or organism, e.g. by conversion to dioxygen (O2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).

Any process, acting at the cellular level, involved in removing superoxide radicals (O2-) from a cell or organism, e.g. by conversion to dioxygen (O2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).

An immune response against microbes mediated through a body fluid. Examples of this process are seen in the antimicrobial humoral response of Drosophila melanogaster and Mus musculus.

The process in which neuroblasts acquire specialized structural and/or functional features that characterize the mature cerebellar Purkinje cell. Differentiation includes the processes involved in commitment of a neuroblast to a Purkinje cell fate. A Purkinje cell is an inhibitory GABAergic neuron found in the cerebellar cortex that projects to the deep cerebellar nuclei and brain stem.

The process in which neuroblasts acquire specialized structural and/or functional features that characterize the mature cerebellar Purkinje cell. Differentiation includes the processes involved in commitment of a neuroblast to a Purkinje cell fate. A Purkinje cell is an inhibitory GABAergic neuron found in the cerebellar cortex that projects to the deep cerebellar nuclei and brain stem.

The progression of a pyramidal neuron from its initial formation to its mature state.

The progression of a pyramidal neuron from its initial formation to its mature state.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of a neuron whose cell body is located in the central nervous system, from initial commitment of the cell to a neuronal fate, to the fully functional differentiated neuron.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of a neuron whose cell body is located in the central nervous system, from initial commitment of the cell to a neuronal fate, to the fully functional differentiated neuron.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of an extracellular matrix.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of an extracellular matrix.

Any process that determines the size and arrangement of collagen fibrils within an extracellular matrix.

Any process that determines the size and arrangement of collagen fibrils within an extracellular matrix.

The process in which the anatomical structures of the hair follicle are generated and organized.

The process in which the anatomical structures of the hair follicle are generated and organized.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of the directed movement of iron ions from one side of a membrane to the other by means of some agent such as a transporter or pore.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of the directed movement of iron ions from one side of a membrane to the other by means of some agent such as a transporter or pore.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a platelet-derived growth factor stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a platelet-derived growth factor stimulus.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized thymocyte acquires specialized features of a T-helper cell.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized thymocyte acquires specialized features of a T-helper cell.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving epinephrine, a hormone produced by the medulla of the adrenal glands that increases heart activity, improves the power and prolongs the action of muscles, and increases the rate and depth of breathing. It is synthesized by the methylation of norepinephrine.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving epinephrine, a hormone produced by the medulla of the adrenal glands that increases heart activity, improves the power and prolongs the action of muscles, and increases the rate and depth of breathing. It is synthesized by the methylation of norepinephrine.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving norepinephrine, a hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla, and a neurotransmitter in the sympathetic peripheral nervous system and in some tracts in the central nervous system. It is also the demethylated biosynthetic precursor of epinephrine.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving norepinephrine, a hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla, and a neurotransmitter in the sympathetic peripheral nervous system and in some tracts in the central nervous system. It is also the demethylated biosynthetic precursor of epinephrine.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving dopamine, a catecholamine neurotransmitter and a metabolic precursor of noradrenaline and adrenaline.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving dopamine, a catecholamine neurotransmitter and a metabolic precursor of noradrenaline and adrenaline.

The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of norepinephrine, a hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla, and a neurotransmitter in the sympathetic peripheral nervous system and in some tracts in the central nervous system. It is also the demethylated biosynthetic precursor of epinephrine.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), a monoamine neurotransmitter occurring in the peripheral and central nervous systems, also having hormonal properties.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), a monoamine neurotransmitter occurring in the peripheral and central nervous systems, also having hormonal properties.

Any process that activates or increases the activity of an enzyme.

Any process that activates or increases the activity of an enzyme.

Any process that stops or reduces the activity of an enzyme.

Any process that stops or reduces the activity of an enzyme.

The accumulation of pigment in an organism, tissue or cell, either by increased deposition or by increased number of cells.

The accumulation of pigment in an organism, tissue or cell, either by increased deposition or by increased number of cells.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of cell death by apoptotic process in neurons.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the skin over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The skin is the external membranous integument of an animal. In vertebrates the skin generally consists of two layers, an outer nonsensitive and nonvascular epidermis (cuticle or skarfskin) composed of cells which are constantly growing and multiplying in the deeper, and being thrown off in the superficial layers, as well as an inner vascular dermis (cutis, corium or true skin) composed mostly of connective tissue.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the skin over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The skin is the external membranous integument of an animal. In vertebrates the skin generally consists of two layers, an outer nonsensitive and nonvascular epidermis (cuticle or skarfskin) composed of cells which are constantly growing and multiplying in the deeper, and being thrown off in the superficial layers, as well as an inner vascular dermis (cutis, corium or true skin) composed mostly of connective tissue.

Any process that increases cell size.

Any process that increases cell size.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving ATP, adenosine triphosphate, a universally important coenzyme and enzyme regulator.

Assembly of the extracellular matrix fibers that enables the matrix to recoil after transient stretching.

Assembly of the extracellular matrix fibers that enables the matrix to recoil after transient stretching.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the alveolus over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The alveolus is a sac for holding air in the lungs; formed by the terminal dilation of air passageways.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the alveolus over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The alveolus is a sac for holding air in the lungs; formed by the terminal dilation of air passageways.

The process in which the anatomical structures of a neuron projection are generated and organized. A neuron projection is any process extending from a neural cell, such as axons or dendrites.

The process in which the anatomical structures of a neuron projection are generated and organized. A neuron projection is any process extending from a neural cell, such as axons or dendrites.

The process in which the anatomical structures of a dendrite are generated and organized.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of epithelial cell proliferation.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of epithelial cell proliferation.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of a cartilage element over time, from its formation to the mature structure. Cartilage elements are skeletal elements that consist of connective tissue dominated by extracellular matrix containing collagen type II and large amounts of proteoglycan, particularly chondroitin sulfate.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of a cartilage element over time, from its formation to the mature structure. Cartilage elements are skeletal elements that consist of connective tissue dominated by extracellular matrix containing collagen type II and large amounts of proteoglycan, particularly chondroitin sulfate.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of oxidoreductase activity, the catalysis of an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction, a reversible chemical reaction in which the oxidation state of an atom or atoms within a molecule is altered.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of oxidoreductase activity, the catalysis of an oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction, a reversible chemical reaction in which the oxidation state of an atom or atoms within a molecule is altered.

The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of elastin, a fibrous glycoprotein found in elastic tissues such as the walls of arteries.

The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of elastin, a fibrous glycoprotein found in elastic tissues such as the walls of arteries.

The directed movement of copper ions out of a cell or organelle.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an amino acid stimulus. An amino acid is a carboxylic acids containing one or more amino groups.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an amino acid stimulus. An amino acid is a carboxylic acids containing one or more amino groups.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an antibiotic stimulus. An antibiotic is a chemical substance produced by a microorganism which has the capacity to inhibit the growth of or to kill other microorganisms.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a cadmium (Cd) ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a cobalt ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a copper ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an iron ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a lead ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a stimulus indicating lowered oxygen tension. Hypoxia, defined as a decline in O2 levels below normoxic levels of 20.8 - 20.95%, results in metabolic adaptation at both the cellular and organismal level.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of response to wounding.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of response to wounding.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of vascular associated smooth muscle cell migration.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of vascular associated smooth muscle cell migration.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of cytochrome-c oxidase activity.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of cytochrome-c oxidase activity.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the larva over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The larva is the early, immature form of an that at birth or hatching is fundamentally unlike its parent and must metamorphose before assuming the adult characters.

The developmental process that results in the deposition of coloring matter in an organism, tissue or cell.

Establishment of the adult pattern of pigmentation in the chitin-containing cuticle of an organism. An example of this is the adult cuticle pigmentation process in Drosophila melanogaster.

Any process involved in the maintenance of an internal steady state of metal ions within an organism or cell.

Any process involved in the maintenance of an internal steady state of copper ions within an organism or cell.

A compound membranous cytoplasmic organelle of eukaryotic cells, consisting of flattened, ribosome-free vesicles arranged in a more or less regular stack. The Golgi apparatus differs from the endoplasmic reticulum in often having slightly thicker membranes, appearing in sections as a characteristic shallow semicircle so that the convex side (cis or entry face) abuts the endoplasmic reticulum, secretory vesicles emerging from the concave side (trans or exit face). In vertebrate cells there is usually one such organelle, while in invertebrates and plants, where they are known usually as dictyosomes, there may be several scattered in the cytoplasm. The Golgi apparatus processes proteins produced on the ribosomes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum; such processing includes modification of the core oligosaccharides of glycoproteins, and the sorting and packaging of proteins for transport to a variety of cellular locations. Three different regions of the Golgi are now recognized both in terms of structure and function: cis, in the vicinity of the cis face, trans, in the vicinity of the trans face, and medial, lying between the cis and trans regions.

A prelysosomal endocytic organelle differentiated from early endosomes by lower lumenal pH and different protein composition. Late endosomes are more spherical than early endosomes and are mostly juxtanuclear, being concentrated near the microtubule organizing center.

The network of interconnected tubular and cisternal structures located within the Golgi apparatus on the side distal to the endoplasmic reticulum, from which secretory vesicles emerge. The trans-Golgi network is important in the later stages of protein secretion where it is thought to play a key role in the sorting and targeting of secreted proteins to the correct destination.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

The lipid bilayer surrounding any of the compartments that make up the trans-Golgi network.

A lipid bilayer along with all the proteins and protein complexes embedded in it an attached to it.

The region of the plasma membrane that includes the basal end and sides of the cell. Often used in reference to animal polarized epithelial membranes, where the basal membrane is the part attached to the extracellular matrix, or in plant cells, where the basal membrane is defined with respect to the zygotic axis.

Cytoplasm situated near, or occurring around, the nucleus.

The lipid bilayer surrounding any of the compartments of the Golgi apparatus.

The component of the plasma membrane consisting of the gene products and protein complexes having at least some part of their peptide sequence embedded in the hydrophobic region of the membrane.

The lipid bilayer surrounding any of the compartments that make up the trans-Golgi network.

A prelysosomal endocytic organelle differentiated from early endosomes by lower lumenal pH and different protein composition. Late endosomes are more spherical than early endosomes and are mostly juxtanuclear, being concentrated near the microtubule organizing center.

The irregular network of unit membranes, visible only by electron microscopy, that occurs in the cytoplasm of many eukaryotic cells. The membranes form a complex meshwork of tubular channels, which are often expanded into slitlike cavities called cisternae. The ER takes two forms, rough (or granular), with ribosomes adhering to the outer surface, and smooth (with no ribosomes attached).

A compound membranous cytoplasmic organelle of eukaryotic cells, consisting of flattened, ribosome-free vesicles arranged in a more or less regular stack. The Golgi apparatus differs from the endoplasmic reticulum in often having slightly thicker membranes, appearing in sections as a characteristic shallow semicircle so that the convex side (cis or entry face) abuts the endoplasmic reticulum, secretory vesicles emerging from the concave side (trans or exit face). In vertebrate cells there is usually one such organelle, while in invertebrates and plants, where they are known usually as dictyosomes, there may be several scattered in the cytoplasm. The Golgi apparatus processes proteins produced on the ribosomes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum; such processing includes modification of the core oligosaccharides of glycoproteins, and the sorting and packaging of proteins for transport to a variety of cellular locations. Three different regions of the Golgi are now recognized both in terms of structure and function: cis, in the vicinity of the cis face, trans, in the vicinity of the trans face, and medial, lying between the cis and trans regions.

The network of interconnected tubular and cisternal structures located within the Golgi apparatus on the side distal to the endoplasmic reticulum, from which secretory vesicles emerge. The trans-Golgi network is important in the later stages of protein secretion where it is thought to play a key role in the sorting and targeting of secreted proteins to the correct destination.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

A lipid bilayer along with all the proteins and protein complexes embedded in it an attached to it.

The region of the plasma membrane that includes the basal end and sides of the cell. Often used in reference to animal polarized epithelial membranes, where the basal membrane is the part attached to the extracellular matrix, or in plant cells, where the basal membrane is defined with respect to the zygotic axis.

Cytoplasm situated near, or occurring around, the nucleus.

A prelysosomal endocytic organelle differentiated from early endosomes by lower lumenal pH and different protein composition. Late endosomes are more spherical than early endosomes and are mostly juxtanuclear, being concentrated near the microtubule organizing center.

The irregular network of unit membranes, visible only by electron microscopy, that occurs in the cytoplasm of many eukaryotic cells. The membranes form a complex meshwork of tubular channels, which are often expanded into slitlike cavities called cisternae. The ER takes two forms, rough (or granular), with ribosomes adhering to the outer surface, and smooth (with no ribosomes attached).

An occluding cell-cell junction that is composed of a branching network of sealing strands that completely encircles the apical end of each cell in an epithelial sheet; the outer leaflets of the two interacting plasma membranes are seen to be tightly apposed where sealing strands are present. Each sealing strand is composed of a long row of transmembrane adhesion proteins embedded in each of the two interacting plasma membranes.

An occluding cell-cell junction that is composed of a branching network of sealing strands that completely encircles the apical end of each cell in an epithelial sheet; the outer leaflets of the two interacting plasma membranes are seen to be tightly apposed where sealing strands are present. Each sealing strand is composed of a long row of transmembrane adhesion proteins embedded in each of the two interacting plasma membranes.

The lipid bilayer surrounding any of the compartments that make up the trans-Golgi network.

The region of a polarized cell that forms a tip or is distal to a base. For example, in a polarized epithelial cell, the apical region has an exposed surface and lies opposite to the basal lamina that separates the epithelium from other tissue.

The region of a polarized cell that forms a tip or is distal to a base. For example, in a polarized epithelial cell, the apical region has an exposed surface and lies opposite to the basal lamina that separates the epithelium from other tissue.

A cell-cell junction that seals cells together in an epithelium in a way that prevents even small molecules from leaking from one side of the sheet to the other.

A cell-cell junction that seals cells together in an epithelium in a way that prevents even small molecules from leaking from one side of the sheet to the other.

A membrane-bounded organelle of eukaryotic cells in which chromosomes are housed and replicated. In most cells, the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes except the organellar chromosomes, and is the site of RNA synthesis and processing. In some species, or in specialized cell types, RNA metabolism or DNA replication may be absent.

A membrane-bounded organelle of eukaryotic cells in which chromosomes are housed and replicated. In most cells, the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes except the organellar chromosomes, and is the site of RNA synthesis and processing. In some species, or in specialized cell types, RNA metabolism or DNA replication may be absent.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

Thin cylindrical membrane-covered projections on the surface of an animal cell containing a core bundle of actin filaments. Present in especially large numbers on the absorptive surface of intestinal cells.

Thin cylindrical membrane-covered projections on the surface of an animal cell containing a core bundle of actin filaments. Present in especially large numbers on the absorptive surface of intestinal cells.

The component of a membrane consisting of the gene products and protein complexes having at least some part of their peptide sequence embedded in the hydrophobic region of the membrane.

The component of a membrane consisting of the gene products and protein complexes having at least some part of their peptide sequence embedded in the hydrophobic region of the membrane.

The region of the plasma membrane located at the apical end of the cell.

The region of the plasma membrane located at the apical end of the cell.

A vesicle that mediates transport between the trans-Golgi network and other parts of the cell.

A vesicle that mediates transport between the trans-Golgi network and other parts of the cell.

A vesicle that mediates transport between the trans-Golgi network and other parts of the cell.

A small subcellular vesicle, surrounded by a membrane, that is formed from the Golgi apparatus and contains a highly concentrated protein destined for secretion. Secretory granules move towards the periphery of the cell and upon stimulation, their membranes fuse with the cell membrane, and their protein load is exteriorized. Processing of the contained protein may take place in secretory granules.

A small subcellular vesicle, surrounded by a membrane, that is formed from the Golgi apparatus and contains a highly concentrated protein destined for secretion. Secretory granules move towards the periphery of the cell and upon stimulation, their membranes fuse with the cell membrane, and their protein load is exteriorized. Processing of the contained protein may take place in secretory granules.

The lipid bilayer surrounding a phagocytic vesicle.

The area of a motile cell closest to the direction of movement.

The area of a motile cell closest to the direction of movement.

A vesicle found in the cytoplasm of a cell.

The portion of the plasma membrane surrounding the brush border.

The portion of the plasma membrane surrounding the brush border.

A prolongation or process extending from a nerve cell, e.g. an axon or dendrite.

A prolongation or process extending from a nerve cell, e.g. an axon or dendrite.

The portion of a neuron that includes the nucleus, but excludes cell projections such as axons and dendrites.

The portion of a neuron that includes the nucleus, but excludes cell projections such as axons and dendrites.

The portion of the cell soma (neuronal cell body) that excludes the nucleus.

The portion of the cell soma (neuronal cell body) that excludes the nucleus.

Any of the small (10-200 nm), heterogeneous, highly dynamic, sterol- and sphingolipid-enriched membrane domains that compartmentalize cellular processes. Small rafts can sometimes be stabilized to form larger platforms through protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions.

Any of the small (10-200 nm), heterogeneous, highly dynamic, sterol- and sphingolipid-enriched membrane domains that compartmentalize cellular processes. Small rafts can sometimes be stabilized to form larger platforms through protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

The lipid bilayer surrounding the vacuole and separating its contents from the cytoplasm of the cell.

The lipid bilayer surrounding any of the compartments of the Golgi apparatus.

A compound membranous cytoplasmic organelle of eukaryotic cells, consisting of flattened, ribosome-free vesicles arranged in a more or less regular stack. The Golgi apparatus differs from the endoplasmic reticulum in often having slightly thicker membranes, appearing in sections as a characteristic shallow semicircle so that the convex side (cis or entry face) abuts the endoplasmic reticulum, secretory vesicles emerging from the concave side (trans or exit face). In vertebrate cells there is usually one such organelle, while in invertebrates and plants, where they are known usually as dictyosomes, there may be several scattered in the cytoplasm. The Golgi apparatus processes proteins produced on the ribosomes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum; such processing includes modification of the core oligosaccharides of glycoproteins, and the sorting and packaging of proteins for transport to a variety of cellular locations. Three different regions of the Golgi are now recognized both in terms of structure and function: cis, in the vicinity of the cis face, trans, in the vicinity of the trans face, and medial, lying between the cis and trans regions.