The initiation of the activity of the inactive enzyme MAP kinase (MAPK).

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of signal transduction mediated by the stress-activated MAPK cascade.

Any process that modulates the rate, frequency or extent of Golgi inheritance. Golgi inheritance is the partitioning of Golgi apparatus between daughter cells at cell division.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of early endosome to late endosome transport.

Any process that decreases the frequency, rate or extent of gene expression. Gene expression is the process in which a gene's coding sequence is converted into a mature gene product or products (proteins or RNA). This includes the production of an RNA transcript as well as any processing to produce a mature RNA product or an mRNA or circRNA (for protein-coding genes) and the translation of that mRNA or circRNA into protein. Protein maturation is included when required to form an active form of a product from an inactive precursor form.

An intracellular protein kinase cascade containing at least ERK1 or ERK2 (MAPKs), a MEK (a MAPKK) and a MAP3K. The cascade may involve 4 different kinases, as it can also contain an additional tier: the upstream MAP4K. The kinases in each tier phosphorylate and activate the kinase in the downstream tier to transmit a signal within a cell.

An intracellular protein kinase cascade containing at least a MAPK, a MAPKK and a MAP3K. The cascade can also contain an additional tiers: the upstream MAP4K. The kinases in each tier phosphorylate and activate the kinase in the downstream tier to transmit a signal within a cell.

The process of introducing a phosphate group on to a protein.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cellular DNA-templated transcription.

Any process that increases the rate, frequency, or extent of protein serine/threonine kinase activity.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of production of miRNAs involved in gene silencing by miRNA.

The initiation of the activity of the inactive enzyme MAP kinase (MAPK).

Any process that increases the frequency, rate or extent of gene expression. Gene expression is the process in which a gene's coding sequence is converted into a mature gene product or products (proteins or RNA). This includes the production of an RNA transcript as well as any processing to produce a mature RNA product or an mRNA or circRNA (for protein-coding genes) and the translation of that mRNA or circRNA into protein. Protein maturation is included when required to form an active form of a product from an inactive precursor form.

The directed movement of a motile cell or organism, or the directed growth of a cell guided by a specific chemical concentration gradient. Movement may be towards a higher concentration (positive chemotaxis) or towards a lower concentration (negative chemotaxis).

A regulatory process that halts progression through the cell cycle during one of the normal phases (G1, S, G2, M).

The cellular process in which a signal is conveyed to trigger a change in the activity or state of a cell. Signal transduction begins with reception of a signal (e.g. a ligand binding to a receptor or receptor activation by a stimulus such as light), or for signal transduction in the absence of ligand, signal-withdrawal or the activity of a constitutively active receptor. Signal transduction ends with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. regulation of transcription or regulation of a metabolic process. Signal transduction covers signaling from receptors located on the surface of the cell and signaling via molecules located within the cell. For signaling between cells, signal transduction is restricted to events at and within the receiving cell.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the rate or extent of cell proliferation.

The phosphorylation of peptidyl-threonine to form peptidyl-O-phospho-L-threonine.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of signal transduction mediated by the ERK1 and ERK2 cascade.

A cell aging process stimulated in response to cellular stress, whereby normal cells lose the ability to divide through irreversible cell cycle arrest.

An intracellular protein kinase cascade containing at least ERK1 or ERK2 (MAPKs), a MEK (a MAPKK) and a MAP3K. The cascade may involve 4 different kinases, as it can also contain an additional tier: the upstream MAP4K. The kinases in each tier phosphorylate and activate the kinase in the downstream tier to transmit a signal within a cell.

The process of introducing a phosphate group on to a protein.

The process of introducing a phosphate group on to a protein.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the heart over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The heart is a hollow, muscular organ, which, by contracting rhythmically, keeps up the circulation of the blood.

Any process that decreases the frequency, rate or extent of gene expression. Gene expression is the process in which a gene's coding sequence is converted into a mature gene product or products (proteins or RNA). This includes the production of an RNA transcript as well as any processing to produce a mature RNA product or an mRNA or circRNA (for protein-coding genes) and the translation of that mRNA or circRNA into protein. Protein maturation is included when required to form an active form of a product from an inactive precursor form.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires specialized features of a neuron.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the thyroid gland over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The thyroid gland is an endoderm-derived gland that produces thyroid hormone.

The phosphorylation by a protein of one or more of its own serine amino acid residues, or a serine residue on an identical protein.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cellular DNA-templated transcription.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the thymus over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The thymus is a symmetric bi-lobed organ involved primarily in the differentiation of immature to mature T cells, with unique vascular, nervous, epithelial, and lymphoid cell components.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of axon regeneration.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of axonogenesis.

The biological process whose specific outcome is the progression of a face from an initial condition to its mature state. The face is the ventral division of the head.

The process in which the anatomical structures of the lung are generated and organized.

The process pertaining to the initial formation of a trachea from unspecified parts. The process begins with the specific processes that contribute to the appearance of the discrete structure and ends when the trachea is recognizable. The trachea is the portion of the airway that attaches to the bronchi as it branches.

The multiplication or reproduction of epithelial cells, resulting in the expansion of a cell population that contributes to the shaping of the lung.

An intracellular protein kinase cascade containing at least ERK1 or ERK2 (MAPKs), a MEK (a MAPKK) and a MAP3K. The cascade may involve 4 different kinases, as it can also contain an additional tier: the upstream MAP4K. The kinases in each tier phosphorylate and activate the kinase in the downstream tier to transmit a signal within a cell.

An intracellular protein kinase cascade containing at least ERK1 or ERK2 (MAPKs), a MEK (a MAPKK) and a MAP3K. The cascade may involve 4 different kinases, as it can also contain an additional tier: the upstream MAP4K. The kinases in each tier phosphorylate and activate the kinase in the downstream tier to transmit a signal within a cell.

Any process that increases the rate, frequency, or extent of protein serine/threonine kinase activity.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of production of miRNAs involved in gene silencing by miRNA.

The initiation of the activity of the inactive enzyme MAP kinase (MAPK).

The initiation of the activity of the inactive enzyme MAP kinase (MAPK).

Progression through the phases of the mitotic cell cycle, the most common eukaryotic cell cycle, which canonically comprises four successive phases called G1, S, G2, and M and includes replication of the genome and the subsequent segregation of chromosomes into daughter cells. In some variant cell cycles nuclear replication or nuclear division may not be followed by cell division, or G1 and G2 phases may be absent.

Any process that increases the frequency, rate or extent of vascular smooth muscle contraction.

The process of introducing a phosphate group on to a protein.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of oxidative stress, a state often resulting from exposure to high levels of reactive oxygen species, e.g. superoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radicals.

A regulatory process that halts progression through the cell cycle during one of the normal phases (G1, S, G2, M).

The multiplication or reproduction of cells, resulting in the expansion of a cell population.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the rate or extent of cell proliferation.

Any process that activates, maintains or increases the rate of autophagy. Autophagy is the process in which cells digest parts of their own cytoplasm.

Any process that increases the frequency, rate or extent of gene expression. Gene expression is the process in which a gene's coding sequence is converted into a mature gene product or products (proteins or RNA). This includes the production of an RNA transcript as well as any processing to produce a mature RNA product or an mRNA or circRNA (for protein-coding genes) and the translation of that mRNA or circRNA into protein. Protein maturation is included when required to form an active form of a product from an inactive precursor form.

The phosphorylation of peptidyl-threonine to form peptidyl-O-phospho-L-threonine.

The process that gives rise to the cerebellar cortex. This process pertains to the initial formation of a structure from unspecified parts. The cerebellar cortex is a thin mantle of gray matter that covers the surface of each cerebral hemisphere. It has a characteristic morphology with convolutions (gyri) and crevices (sulci) that have specific functions. Six layers of nerve cells and the nerve pathways that connect them comprise the cerebellar cortex. Together, these regions are responsible for the processes of conscious thought, perception, emotion and memory as well as advanced motor function.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires specialized features of a neuron.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires specialized features of a keratinocyte.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cell migration.

The directed movement of melanosomes into, out of or within a cell, or between cells, by means of some agent such as a transporter or pore.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of transcription elongation, the extension of an RNA molecule after transcription initiation and promoter clearance by the addition of ribonucleotides, catalyzed by RNA polymerase II.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate, or extent of homotypic cell-cell adhesion.

Any process involved in the maintenance of an internal steady state of glucose within an organism or cell.

Any process that activates or increases the activity of a GTPase.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cell differentiation.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of muscle contraction.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of Ras protein signal transduction.

The directed movement of a vesicle along a microtubule, mediated by motor proteins. This process begins with the attachment of a vesicle to a microtubule, and ends when the vesicle reaches its final destination.

The partitioning of Golgi apparatus between daughter cells at cell division.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an axon injury stimulus.

The process in which the anatomical structures of a neuron projection are generated and organized. A neuron projection is any process extending from a neural cell, such as axons or dendrites.

Any process involved in the controlled self-propelled movement of a cell that results in translocation of the cell from one place to another.

The process of creating protein oligomers, compounds composed of a small number, usually between three and ten, of component monomers that are not all identical. Oligomers may be formed by the polymerization of a number of monomers or the depolymerization of a large protein polymer.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a glucocorticoid stimulus. Glucocorticoids are hormonal C21 corticosteroids synthesized from cholesterol with the ability to bind with the cortisol receptor and trigger similar effects. Glucocorticoids act primarily on carbohydrate and protein metabolism, and have anti-inflammatory effects.

The process in which neuroepithelial cells of the neural tube give rise to Brgmann glial cells, specialized bipotential progenitors cells of the cerebellum. Differentiation includes the processes involved in commitment of a cell to a specific fate.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of a blood vessel of the placenta over time, from its formation to the mature structure.

The process in which the labyrinthine layer of the placenta progresses, from its formation to its mature state.

Any process involved in the maintenance of an internal steady state of triglyceride within an organism or cell.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of signal transduction mediated by the ERK1 and ERK2 cascade.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of signal transduction mediated by the ERK1 and ERK2 cascade.

A cell aging process stimulated in response to cellular stress, whereby normal cells lose the ability to divide through irreversible cell cycle arrest.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of neurotransmitter receptor localization to postsynaptic specialization membrane.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of hypoxia-induced intrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of ATP biosynthetic process.

Progression through the phases of the mitotic cell cycle, the most common eukaryotic cell cycle, which canonically comprises four successive phases called G1, S, G2, and M and includes replication of the genome and the subsequent segregation of chromosomes into daughter cells. In some variant cell cycles nuclear replication or nuclear division may not be followed by cell division, or G1 and G2 phases may be absent.

Any process that increases the frequency, rate or extent of vascular smooth muscle contraction.

The process of introducing a phosphate group on to a protein.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of oxidative stress, a state often resulting from exposure to high levels of reactive oxygen species, e.g. superoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radicals.

A mitotic cell cycle checkpoint that detects and negatively regulates progression through the G2/M transition of the cell cycle in response to DNA damage.

A series of molecular signals initiated by binding of a ligand to the tyrosine kinase receptor EGFR (ERBB1) on the surface of a cell. The pathway ends with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by binding of a ligand to the tyrosine kinase receptor EGFR (ERBB1) on the surface of a cell. The pathway ends with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

The directed movement of a border cell through the nurse cells to reach the oocyte. An example of this is found in Drosophila melanogaster.

Specification of the terminal regions (the two non-segmented ends) of the embryo by the gap genes; exemplified in insects by the actions of huckebein and tailless gene products.

Formation of terminal branches in the open tracheal system. These are long cytoplasmic extensions that form fine tubules that transport oxygen directly to the tissues. An example of the process is found in Drosophila melanogaster.

The process in which the R7 photoreceptor commits to its cell fate. The R7 receptor contributes the central part of the rhabdomere in the apical parts of the ommatidium.

The process in which the R7 photoreceptor commits to its cell fate. The R7 receptor contributes the central part of the rhabdomere in the apical parts of the ommatidium.

Any biological process in an organism that recurs with a regularity of approximately 24 hours.

The multiplication or reproduction of cells, resulting in the expansion of a cell population.

The series of molecular signals generated as a consequence of the insulin receptor binding to insulin.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of an extracellular ligand to torso (a receptor tyrosine kinase) on the surface of a target cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of an extracellular ligand to torso (a receptor tyrosine kinase) on the surface of a target cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

The series of molecular signals generated as a consequence of a fibroblast growth factor receptor binding to one of its physiological ligands.

The regionalization process in which the areas along the dorsal/ventral axis are established that will lead to differences in cell differentiation. The dorsal/ventral axis is defined by a line that runs orthogonal to both the anterior/posterior and left/right axes. The dorsal end is defined by the upper or back side of an organism. The ventral end is defined by the lower or front side of an organism.

Any process that activates, maintains or increases the rate of autophagy. Autophagy is the process in which cells digest parts of their own cytoplasm.

Any process that increases the frequency, rate or extent of gene expression. Gene expression is the process in which a gene's coding sequence is converted into a mature gene product or products (proteins or RNA). This includes the production of an RNA transcript as well as any processing to produce a mature RNA product or an mRNA or circRNA (for protein-coding genes) and the translation of that mRNA or circRNA into protein. Protein maturation is included when required to form an active form of a product from an inactive precursor form.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cell migration.

The directed movement of melanosomes into, out of or within a cell, or between cells, by means of some agent such as a transporter or pore.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of transcription elongation, the extension of an RNA molecule after transcription initiation and promoter clearance by the addition of ribonucleotides, catalyzed by RNA polymerase II.

A cell cycle checkpoint that acts during a mitotic cell cycle and prevents the initiation of mitosis until DNA replication is complete, thereby ensuring that progeny inherit a full complement of the genome.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate, or extent of homotypic cell-cell adhesion.

The process in which a signal is passed on to downstream components within the cell, which become activated themselves to further propagate the signal and finally trigger a change in the function or state of the cell.

The phosphorylation by a protein of one or more of its own serine amino acid residues, or a serine residue on an identical protein.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires the characteristics of a mature hemocyte. Hemocytes are blood cells associated with a hemocoel (the cavity containing most of the major organs of the arthropod body) which are involved in defense and clotting of hemolymph, but not involved in transport of oxygen.

Development of a photoreceptor, a cell that responds to incident electromagnetic radiation, particularly visible light.

Any process involved in the maintenance of an internal steady state of glucose within an organism or cell.

Any process that activates or increases the activity of a GTPase.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of an extracellular ligand to sevenless (sev; a receptor tyrosine kinase) on the surface of a target cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of an extracellular ligand to sevenless (sev; a receptor tyrosine kinase) on the surface of a target cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of muscle contraction.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of muscle contraction.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of Ras protein signal transduction.

The directed movement of a vesicle along a microtubule, mediated by motor proteins. This process begins with the attachment of a vesicle to a microtubule, and ends when the vesicle reaches its final destination.

Any series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of an extracellular ligand to a vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR) located on the surface of the receiving cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

Any series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of an extracellular ligand to a vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR) located on the surface of the receiving cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

The partitioning of Golgi apparatus between daughter cells at cell division.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an axon injury stimulus.

The process in which the anatomical structures of a neuron projection are generated and organized. A neuron projection is any process extending from a neural cell, such as axons or dendrites.

The process of creating protein oligomers, compounds composed of a small number, usually between three and ten, of component monomers that are not all identical. Oligomers may be formed by the polymerization of a number of monomers or the depolymerization of a large protein polymer.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a glucocorticoid stimulus. Glucocorticoids are hormonal C21 corticosteroids synthesized from cholesterol with the ability to bind with the cortisol receptor and trigger similar effects. Glucocorticoids act primarily on carbohydrate and protein metabolism, and have anti-inflammatory effects.

Reactions triggered in response to the presence of a virus that act to protect the cell or organism.

Any process involved in the maintenance of an internal steady state of triglyceride within an organism or cell.

An intracellular protein kinase cascade containing at least ERK1 or ERK2 (MAPKs), a MEK (a MAPKK) and a MAP3K. The cascade may involve 4 different kinases, as it can also contain an additional tier: the upstream MAP4K. The kinases in each tier phosphorylate and activate the kinase in the downstream tier to transmit a signal within a cell.

An intracellular protein kinase cascade containing at least ERK1 or ERK2 (MAPKs), a MEK (a MAPKK) and a MAP3K. The cascade may involve 4 different kinases, as it can also contain an additional tier: the upstream MAP4K. The kinases in each tier phosphorylate and activate the kinase in the downstream tier to transmit a signal within a cell.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of signal transduction mediated by the ERK1 and ERK2 cascade.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of X-ray radiation. An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength in the range of 10 nanometers to 100 picometers (corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 PHz to 3 EHz).

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of neurotransmitter receptor localization to postsynaptic specialization membrane.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of neurotransmitter receptor localization to postsynaptic specialization membrane.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of hypoxia-induced intrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of hypoxia-induced intrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of cell motility.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of ATP biosynthetic process.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of ATP biosynthetic process.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

A membrane-bounded organelle of eukaryotic cells in which chromosomes are housed and replicated. In most cells, the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes except the organellar chromosomes, and is the site of RNA synthesis and processing. In some species, or in specialized cell types, RNA metabolism or DNA replication may be absent.

A semiautonomous, self replicating organelle that occurs in varying numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of virtually all eukaryotic cells. It is notably the site of tissue respiration.

A membrane-bounded organelle that receives incoming material from primary endocytic vesicles that have been generated by clathrin-dependent and clathrin-independent endocytosis; vesicles fuse with the early endosome to deliver cargo for sorting into recycling or degradation pathways.

A prelysosomal endocytic organelle differentiated from early endosomes by lower lumenal pH and different protein composition. Late endosomes are more spherical than early endosomes and are mostly juxtanuclear, being concentrated near the microtubule organizing center.

A compound membranous cytoplasmic organelle of eukaryotic cells, consisting of flattened, ribosome-free vesicles arranged in a more or less regular stack. The Golgi apparatus differs from the endoplasmic reticulum in often having slightly thicker membranes, appearing in sections as a characteristic shallow semicircle so that the convex side (cis or entry face) abuts the endoplasmic reticulum, secretory vesicles emerging from the concave side (trans or exit face). In vertebrate cells there is usually one such organelle, while in invertebrates and plants, where they are known usually as dictyosomes, there may be several scattered in the cytoplasm. The Golgi apparatus processes proteins produced on the ribosomes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum; such processing includes modification of the core oligosaccharides of glycoproteins, and the sorting and packaging of proteins for transport to a variety of cellular locations. Three different regions of the Golgi are now recognized both in terms of structure and function: cis, in the vicinity of the cis face, trans, in the vicinity of the trans face, and medial, lying between the cis and trans regions.

Small region on the surface of a cell that anchors the cell to the extracellular matrix and that forms a point of termination of actin filaments.

The irregular network of unit membranes, visible only by electron microscopy, that occurs in the cytoplasm of many eukaryotic cells. The membranes form a complex meshwork of tubular channels, which are often expanded into slitlike cavities called cisternae. The ER takes two forms, rough (or granular), with ribosomes adhering to the outer surface, and smooth (with no ribosomes attached).

A compound membranous cytoplasmic organelle of eukaryotic cells, consisting of flattened, ribosome-free vesicles arranged in a more or less regular stack. The Golgi apparatus differs from the endoplasmic reticulum in often having slightly thicker membranes, appearing in sections as a characteristic shallow semicircle so that the convex side (cis or entry face) abuts the endoplasmic reticulum, secretory vesicles emerging from the concave side (trans or exit face). In vertebrate cells there is usually one such organelle, while in invertebrates and plants, where they are known usually as dictyosomes, there may be several scattered in the cytoplasm. The Golgi apparatus processes proteins produced on the ribosomes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum; such processing includes modification of the core oligosaccharides of glycoproteins, and the sorting and packaging of proteins for transport to a variety of cellular locations. Three different regions of the Golgi are now recognized both in terms of structure and function: cis, in the vicinity of the cis face, trans, in the vicinity of the trans face, and medial, lying between the cis and trans regions.

Cytoplasm situated near, or occurring around, the nucleus.

The space external to the outermost structure of a cell. For cells without external protective or external encapsulating structures this refers to space outside of the plasma membrane. This term covers the host cell environment outside an intracellular parasite.

The lipid bilayer surrounding a peroxisome.

The irregular network of unit membranes, visible only by electron microscopy, that occurs in the cytoplasm of many eukaryotic cells. The membranes form a complex meshwork of tubular channels, which are often expanded into slitlike cavities called cisternae. The ER takes two forms, rough (or granular), with ribosomes adhering to the outer surface, and smooth (with no ribosomes attached).

A compound membranous cytoplasmic organelle of eukaryotic cells, consisting of flattened, ribosome-free vesicles arranged in a more or less regular stack. The Golgi apparatus differs from the endoplasmic reticulum in often having slightly thicker membranes, appearing in sections as a characteristic shallow semicircle so that the convex side (cis or entry face) abuts the endoplasmic reticulum, secretory vesicles emerging from the concave side (trans or exit face). In vertebrate cells there is usually one such organelle, while in invertebrates and plants, where they are known usually as dictyosomes, there may be several scattered in the cytoplasm. The Golgi apparatus processes proteins produced on the ribosomes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum; such processing includes modification of the core oligosaccharides of glycoproteins, and the sorting and packaging of proteins for transport to a variety of cellular locations. Three different regions of the Golgi are now recognized both in terms of structure and function: cis, in the vicinity of the cis face, trans, in the vicinity of the trans face, and medial, lying between the cis and trans regions.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

Any of the long, generally straight, hollow tubes of internal diameter 12-15 nm and external diameter 24 nm found in a wide variety of eukaryotic cells; each consists (usually) of 13 protofilaments of polymeric tubulin, staggered in such a manner that the tubulin monomers are arranged in a helical pattern on the microtubular surface, and with the alpha/beta axes of the tubulin subunits parallel to the long axis of the tubule; exist in equilibrium with pool of tubulin monomers and can be rapidly assembled or disassembled in response to physiological stimuli; concerned with force generation, e.g. in the spindle.

A cell junction that forms a connection between two or more cells in a multicellular organism; excludes direct cytoplasmic junctions such as ring canals.

The region of a cell that lies just beneath the plasma membrane and often, but not always, contains a network of actin filaments and associated proteins.

The leaflet the plasma membrane that faces the cytoplasm and any proteins embedded or anchored in it or attached to its surface.

Cytoplasm situated near, or occurring around, the nucleus.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

The region of a cell that lies just beneath the plasma membrane and often, but not always, contains a network of actin filaments and associated proteins.

An electron dense network of proteins within and adjacent to the postsynaptic membrane of an asymmetric, neuron-neuron synapse. Its major components include neurotransmitter receptors and the proteins that spatially and functionally organize them such as anchoring and scaffolding molecules, signaling enzymes and cytoskeletal components.

The long process of a neuron that conducts nerve impulses, usually away from the cell body to the terminals and varicosities, which are sites of storage and release of neurotransmitter.

A neuron projection that has a short, tapering, morphology. Dendrites receive and integrate signals from other neurons or from sensory stimuli, and conduct nerve impulses towards the axon or the cell body. In most neurons, the impulse is conveyed from dendrites to axon via the cell body, but in some types of unipolar neuron, the impulse does not travel via the cell body.

All of the contents of a dendrite, excluding the surrounding plasma membrane.

The portion of the cell soma (neuronal cell body) that excludes the nucleus.

A synapse that uses glutamate as a neurotransmitter.

A highly compacted molecule of DNA and associated proteins resulting in a cytologically distinct structure.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

Any of the long, generally straight, hollow tubes of internal diameter 12-15 nm and external diameter 24 nm found in a wide variety of eukaryotic cells; each consists (usually) of 13 protofilaments of polymeric tubulin, staggered in such a manner that the tubulin monomers are arranged in a helical pattern on the microtubular surface, and with the alpha/beta axes of the tubulin subunits parallel to the long axis of the tubule; exist in equilibrium with pool of tubulin monomers and can be rapidly assembled or disassembled in response to physiological stimuli; concerned with force generation, e.g. in the spindle.

A cell junction that forms a connection between two or more cells in a multicellular organism; excludes direct cytoplasmic junctions such as ring canals.

The leaflet the plasma membrane that faces the cytoplasm and any proteins embedded or anchored in it or attached to its surface.

An electron dense network of proteins within and adjacent to the postsynaptic membrane of an asymmetric, neuron-neuron synapse. Its major components include neurotransmitter receptors and the proteins that spatially and functionally organize them such as anchoring and scaffolding molecules, signaling enzymes and cytoskeletal components.

The long process of a neuron that conducts nerve impulses, usually away from the cell body to the terminals and varicosities, which are sites of storage and release of neurotransmitter.

A neuron projection that has a short, tapering, morphology. Dendrites receive and integrate signals from other neurons or from sensory stimuli, and conduct nerve impulses towards the axon or the cell body. In most neurons, the impulse is conveyed from dendrites to axon via the cell body, but in some types of unipolar neuron, the impulse does not travel via the cell body.

All of the contents of a dendrite, excluding the surrounding plasma membrane.

The portion of the cell soma (neuronal cell body) that excludes the nucleus.

A synapse that uses glutamate as a neurotransmitter.

A synapse that uses glutamate as a neurotransmitter.