Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a denervation stimulus. This process occurs as part of the regulation of muscle adaptation.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the muscle over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The muscle is an organ consisting of a tissue made up of various elongated cells that are specialized to contract and thus to produce movement and mechanical work.

The developmental sequence of events leading to the formation of adult skeletal muscle tissue. The main events are: the fusion of myoblasts to form myotubes that increase in size by further fusion to them of myoblasts, the formation of myofibrils within their cytoplasm and the establishment of functional neuromuscular junctions with motor neurons. At this stage they can be regarded as mature muscle fibers.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of a neuromuscular junction.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of cell adhesion to an extracellular matrix.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of cell adhesion to an extracellular matrix.

Any process that modulates the frequency or rate of heart contraction.

A process in which force is generated within muscle tissue, resulting in a change in muscle geometry. Force generation involves a chemo-mechanical energy conversion step that is carried out by the actin/myosin complex activity, which generates force through ATP hydrolysis.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the somatic muscle over time, from its formation to the mature structure. Somatic muscles are striated muscle structures that connect to the exoskeleton or cuticle.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the adult somatic muscle over time, from its formation to the mature structure.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of a neuromuscular junction.

The developmental process in which a skeletal muscle attaches to its target (such as bone or body wall).

The developmental process in which a skeletal muscle attaches to its target (such as bone or body wall).

Any process in which a protein is transported to, and/or maintained in, a specific location at the level of a cell. Localization at the cellular level encompasses movement within the cell, from within the cell to the cell surface, or from one location to another at the surface of a cell.

The myofibril assembly process that results in the organization of muscle actomyosin into sarcomeres. The sarcomere is the repeating unit of a myofibril in a muscle cell, composed of an array of overlapping thick and thin filaments between two adjacent Z discs.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the skeletal muscle fiber over time, from its formation to the mature structure. Muscle fibers are formed by the maturation of myotubes. They can be classed as slow, intermediate/fast or fast.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of a striated muscle cell over time, from its formation to the mature structure. Striated muscle cells contain fibers that are divided by transverse bands into striations, and cardiac and skeletal muscle are types of striated muscle.

The progression of a somite from its initial formation to the mature structure. Somites are mesodermal clusters that are arranged segmentally along the anterior posterior axis of an embryo.

Any process that modulates the frequency or rate of heart contraction.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of cellular DNA-templated transcription.

A process in which force is generated within muscle tissue, resulting in a change in muscle geometry. Force generation involves a chemo-mechanical energy conversion step that is carried out by the actin/myosin complex activity, which generates force through ATP hydrolysis.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the muscle over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The muscle is an organ consisting of a tissue made up of various elongated cells that are specialized to contract and thus to produce movement and mechanical work.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the muscle over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The muscle is an organ consisting of a tissue made up of various elongated cells that are specialized to contract and thus to produce movement and mechanical work.

The developmental sequence of events leading to the formation of adult skeletal muscle tissue. The main events are: the fusion of myoblasts to form myotubes that increase in size by further fusion to them of myoblasts, the formation of myofibrils within their cytoplasm and the establishment of functional neuromuscular junctions with motor neurons. At this stage they can be regarded as mature muscle fibers.

A developmental process that is a deterioration and loss of function over time. Aging includes loss of functions such as resistance to disease, homeostasis, and fertility, as well as wear and tear. Aging includes cellular senescence, but is more inclusive. May precede death and may succeed developmental maturation (GO:0021700).

The establishment of the barrier between the perineurium of peripheral nerves and the vascular endothelium of endoneurial capillaries. The perineurium acts as a diffusion barrier, but ion permeability at the blood-nerve barrier is still higher than at the blood-brain barrier.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of cell proliferation.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a water deprivation stimulus, prolonged deprivation of water.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of gene expression. Gene expression is the process in which a gene's coding sequence is converted into a mature gene product or products (proteins or RNA). This includes the production of an RNA transcript as well as any processing to produce a mature RNA product or an mRNA or circRNA (for protein-coding genes) and the translation of that mRNA or circRNA into protein. Protein maturation is included when required to form an active form of a product from an inactive precursor form.

Any process that modulates the rate, frequency or extent of release of sequestered calcium ion into cytosol by the sarcoplasmic reticulum, the process in which the release of sequestered calcium ion by sarcoplasmic reticulum into cytosol occurs via calcium release channels.

Any process that modulates the rate, frequency or extent of release of sequestered calcium ion into cytosol by the sarcoplasmic reticulum, the process in which the release of sequestered calcium ion by sarcoplasmic reticulum into cytosol occurs via calcium release channels.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of cardiac muscle contraction via the regulation of the release of sequestered calcium ion by sarcoplasmic reticulum into cytosol. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is the endoplasmic reticulum of striated muscle, specialised for the sequestration of calcium ions that are released upon receipt of a signal relayed by the T tubules from the neuromuscular junction.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of cardiac muscle contraction via the regulation of the release of sequestered calcium ion by sarcoplasmic reticulum into cytosol. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is the endoplasmic reticulum of striated muscle, specialised for the sequestration of calcium ions that are released upon receipt of a signal relayed by the T tubules from the neuromuscular junction.

Any process that increases the rate, frequency or extent of neuron projection development. Neuron projection development is the process whose specific outcome is the progression of a neuron projection over time, from its formation to the mature structure. A neuron projection is any process extending from a neural cell, such as axons or dendrites (collectively called neurites).

Any process that increases the rate, frequency or extent of neuron projection development. Neuron projection development is the process whose specific outcome is the progression of a neuron projection over time, from its formation to the mature structure. A neuron projection is any process extending from a neural cell, such as axons or dendrites (collectively called neurites).

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of skeletal muscle contraction via the regulation of the release of sequestered calcium ion by sarcoplasmic reticulum into cytosol. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is the endoplasmic reticulum of striated muscle, specialised for the sequestration of calcium ions that are released upon receipt of a signal relayed by the T tubules from the neuromuscular junction.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of skeletal muscle contraction via the regulation of the release of sequestered calcium ion by sarcoplasmic reticulum into cytosol. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is the endoplasmic reticulum of striated muscle, specialised for the sequestration of calcium ions that are released upon receipt of a signal relayed by the T tubules from the neuromuscular junction.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of skeletal muscle contraction.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of skeletal muscle contraction.

The process aimed at the progression of a myotube cell over time, from initial commitment of the cell to a specific fate, to the fully functional differentiated cell. Myotubes are multinucleated cells that are formed when proliferating myoblasts exit the cell cycle, differentiate and fuse.

The process that contributes to the act of creating the structural organization of the oculomotor nerve. This process pertains to the physical shaping of a rudimentary structure. The olfactory nerve is a collection of sensory nerve rootlets that extend down from the olfactory bulb to the olfactory mucosa of the upper parts of the nasal cavity. This nerve conducts odor information to the brainstem.

The progression of the cerebral cortex over time from its initial formation until its mature state. The cerebral cortex is the outer layered region of the telencephalon.

The sliding of actin thin filaments and myosin thick filaments past each other in muscle contraction. This involves a process of interaction of myosin located on a thick filament with actin located on a thin filament. During this process ATP is split and forces are generated.

The process in which relatively unspecialized cells, e.g. embryonic or regenerative cells, acquire specialized structural and/or functional features that characterize the cells, tissues, or organs of the mature organism or some other relatively stable phase of the organism's life history. Differentiation includes the processes involved in commitment of a cell to a specific fate and its subsequent development to the mature state.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires specialized features of a neuron.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of the phosphorylation of peptidyl-serine.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of the phosphorylation of peptidyl-serine.

Any process in which a protein is transported to, and/or maintained in, a specific location at the level of a cell. Localization at the cellular level encompasses movement within the cell, from within the cell to the cell surface, or from one location to another at the surface of a cell.

The aggregation, arrangement and bonding together of a set of components to form a protein complex, occurring at the level of an individual cell.

The aggregation, arrangement and bonding together of a set of components to form a protein complex, occurring at the level of an individual cell.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a myofibril being extended beyond its slack length.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a myofibril being extended beyond its slack length.

Any process that modulates the establishment or extent of a membrane potential, the electric potential existing across any membrane arising from charges in the membrane itself and from the charges present in the media on either side of the membrane.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires specialized features of a muscle cell.

The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of peptides, compounds of 2 or more (but usually less than 100) amino acids where the alpha carboxyl group of one is bound to the alpha amino group of another. This may include the translation of a precursor protein and its subsequent processing into a functional peptide.

The chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of peptides, compounds of 2 or more (but usually less than 100) amino acids where the alpha carboxyl group of one is bound to the alpha amino group of another. This may include the translation of a precursor protein and its subsequent processing into a functional peptide.

The regrowth of skeletal muscle tissue to repair injured or damaged muscle fibers in the postnatal stage.

The chemical reactions and pathways involving neurotransmitter receptors.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of neuron differentiation.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of neuron differentiation.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of neuron differentiation.

The cellular homeostatic process that preserves a muscle cell in a stable functional or structural state.

The cellular homeostatic process that preserves a muscle cell in a stable functional or structural state.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the muscle fiber over time, from its formation to the mature structure. In skeletal muscle, fibers are formed by the maturation of myotubes. They can be classed as slow, intermediate/fast or fast.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the muscle fiber over time, from its formation to the mature structure. In skeletal muscle, fibers are formed by the maturation of myotubes. They can be classed as slow, intermediate/fast or fast.

The process in which the anatomical structures of a neuron projection are generated and organized. A neuron projection is any process extending from a neural cell, such as axons or dendrites.

Any process in which the nucleus is transported to, and/or maintained in, a specific location within the cell.

Any process that modulates the rate or extent of progression through the cell cycle.

Muscle contraction of cardiac muscle tissue.

Muscle contraction of cardiac muscle tissue.

Any process that modulates the activity of a ryanodine-sensitive calcium-release channel. The ryanodine-sensitive calcium-release channel catalyzes the transmembrane transfer of a calcium ion by a channel that opens when a ryanodine class ligand has been bound by the channel complex or one of its constituent parts.

Any process that modulates the activity of a ryanodine-sensitive calcium-release channel. The ryanodine-sensitive calcium-release channel catalyzes the transmembrane transfer of a calcium ion by a channel that opens when a ryanodine class ligand has been bound by the channel complex or one of its constituent parts.

Establishment of the glial barrier between the blood and the brain. The glial cells in the brain are packed tightly together preventing the passage of most molecules from the blood into the brain. Only lipid soluble molecules or those that are actively transported can pass through the blood-brain barrier.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of signal transduction mediated by the ERK1 and ERK2 cascade.

An action potential that occurs in a cardiac muscle cell.

An action potential that occurs in a cardiac muscle cell.

Any process that modulates the rate, frequency, or extent of a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a growth factor stimulus.

Any process that modulates the rate, frequency, or extent of a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a growth factor stimulus.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of voltage-gated calcium channel activity.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of voltage-gated calcium channel activity.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of peptidyl-cysteine S-nitrosylation.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of peptidyl-cysteine S-nitrosylation.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of sodium ion transmembrane transporter activity.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of sodium ion transmembrane transporter activity.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of sodium ion transmembrane transporter activity.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of sodium ion transmembrane transporter activity.

The outer membrane of a muscle cell, consisting of the plasma membrane, a covering basement membrane (about 100 nm thick and sometimes common to more than one fiber), and the associated loose network of collagen fibers.

A multiprotein complex that forms a strong mechanical link between the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix; typical of, but not confined to, muscle cells. The complex is composed of transmembrane, cytoplasmic, and extracellular proteins, including dystrophin, sarcoglycans, dystroglycan, dystrobrevins, syntrophins, sarcospan, caveolin-3, and NO synthase.

The junction between the axon of a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. In response to the arrival of action potentials, the presynaptic button releases molecules of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These diffuse across the cleft and transmit the signal to the postsynaptic membrane of the muscle fiber, leading to a change in post-synaptic potential.

A multiprotein complex that forms a strong mechanical link between the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix; typical of, but not confined to, muscle cells. The complex is composed of transmembrane, cytoplasmic, and extracellular proteins, including dystrophin, sarcoglycans, dystroglycan, dystrobrevins, syntrophins, sarcospan, caveolin-3, and NO synthase.

Thin, stiff, actin-based protrusion extended by the leading edge of a motile cell such as a crawling fibroblast or amoeba, or an axonal or dendritic growth cone, or a dendritic shaft.

The migrating motile tip of a growing neuron projection, where actin accumulates, and the actin cytoskeleton is the most dynamic.

The portion of the actin cytoskeleton, comprising filamentous actin and associated proteins, that lies just beneath the plasma membrane.

The portion of the plasma membrane surrounding a filopodium.

A stable assembly of two or more macromolecules, i.e. proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates or lipids, in which at least one component is a protein and the constituent parts function together.

The junction between a nerve fiber of one neuron and another neuron, muscle fiber or glial cell. As the nerve fiber approaches the synapse it enlarges into a specialized structure, the presynaptic nerve ending, which contains mitochondria and synaptic vesicles. At the tip of the nerve ending is the presynaptic membrane; facing it, and separated from it by a minute cleft (the synaptic cleft) is a specialized area of membrane on the receiving cell, known as the postsynaptic membrane. In response to the arrival of nerve impulses, the presynaptic nerve ending secretes molecules of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These diffuse across the cleft and transmit the signal to the postsynaptic membrane.

That part of the nuclear content other than the chromosomes or the nucleolus.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

Any of the various filamentous elements that form the internal framework of cells, and typically remain after treatment of the cells with mild detergent to remove membrane constituents and soluble components of the cytoplasm. The term embraces intermediate filaments, microfilaments, microtubules, the microtrabecular lattice, and other structures characterized by a polymeric filamentous nature and long-range order within the cell. The various elements of the cytoskeleton not only serve in the maintenance of cellular shape but also have roles in other cellular functions, including cellular movement, cell division, endocytosis, and movement of organelles.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

Thin, stiff, actin-based protrusion extended by the leading edge of a motile cell such as a crawling fibroblast or amoeba, or an axonal or dendritic growth cone, or a dendritic shaft.

The migrating motile tip of a growing neuron projection, where actin accumulates, and the actin cytoskeleton is the most dynamic.

The portion of the actin cytoskeleton, comprising filamentous actin and associated proteins, that lies just beneath the plasma membrane.

The portion of the plasma membrane surrounding a filopodium.

The junction between the axon of a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. In response to the arrival of action potentials, the presynaptic button releases molecules of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These diffuse across the cleft and transmit the signal to the postsynaptic membrane of the muscle fiber, leading to a change in post-synaptic potential.

A stable assembly of two or more macromolecules, i.e. proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates or lipids, in which at least one component is a protein and the constituent parts function together.

Any of the small (10-200 nm), heterogeneous, highly dynamic, sterol- and sphingolipid-enriched membrane domains that compartmentalize cellular processes. Small rafts can sometimes be stabilized to form larger platforms through protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions.

A membrane-bounded organelle of eukaryotic cells in which chromosomes are housed and replicated. In most cells, the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes except the organellar chromosomes, and is the site of RNA synthesis and processing. In some species, or in specialized cell types, RNA metabolism or DNA replication may be absent.

A membrane-bounded organelle of eukaryotic cells in which chromosomes are housed and replicated. In most cells, the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes except the organellar chromosomes, and is the site of RNA synthesis and processing. In some species, or in specialized cell types, RNA metabolism or DNA replication may be absent.

That part of the nuclear content other than the chromosomes or the nucleolus.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

The outer, i.e. cytoplasm-facing, lipid bilayer of the mitochondrial envelope.

A compound membranous cytoplasmic organelle of eukaryotic cells, consisting of flattened, ribosome-free vesicles arranged in a more or less regular stack. The Golgi apparatus differs from the endoplasmic reticulum in often having slightly thicker membranes, appearing in sections as a characteristic shallow semicircle so that the convex side (cis or entry face) abuts the endoplasmic reticulum, secretory vesicles emerging from the concave side (trans or exit face). In vertebrate cells there is usually one such organelle, while in invertebrates and plants, where they are known usually as dictyosomes, there may be several scattered in the cytoplasm. The Golgi apparatus processes proteins produced on the ribosomes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum; such processing includes modification of the core oligosaccharides of glycoproteins, and the sorting and packaging of proteins for transport to a variety of cellular locations. Three different regions of the Golgi are now recognized both in terms of structure and function: cis, in the vicinity of the cis face, trans, in the vicinity of the trans face, and medial, lying between the cis and trans regions.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

An intracellular organelle, about 200 A in diameter, consisting of RNA and protein. It is the site of protein biosynthesis resulting from translation of messenger RNA (mRNA). It consists of two subunits, one large and one small, each containing only protein and RNA. Both the ribosome and its subunits are characterized by their sedimentation coefficients, expressed in Svedberg units (symbol: S). Hence, the prokaryotic ribosome (70S) comprises a large (50S) subunit and a small (30S) subunit, while the eukaryotic ribosome (80S) comprises a large (60S) subunit and a small (40S) subunit. Two sites on the ribosomal large subunit are involved in translation, namely the aminoacyl site (A site) and peptidyl site (P site). Ribosomes from prokaryotes, eukaryotes, mitochondria, and chloroplasts have characteristically distinct ribosomal proteins.

A type of intermediate filament found in the core of neuronal axons. Neurofilaments are heteropolymers composed of three type IV polypeptides: NF-L, NF-M, and NF-H (for low, middle, and high molecular weight). Neurofilaments are responsible for the radial growth of an axon and determine axonal diameter.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

The external part of the cell wall and/or plasma membrane.

The external part of the cell wall and/or plasma membrane.

An electron dense network of proteins within and adjacent to the postsynaptic membrane of an asymmetric, neuron-neuron synapse. Its major components include neurotransmitter receptors and the proteins that spatially and functionally organize them such as anchoring and scaffolding molecules, signaling enzymes and cytoskeletal components.

A multiprotein complex that forms a strong mechanical link between the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix; typical of, but not confined to, muscle cells. The complex is composed of transmembrane, cytoplasmic, and extracellular proteins, including dystrophin, sarcoglycans, dystroglycan, dystrobrevins, syntrophins, sarcospan, caveolin-3, and NO synthase.

A multiprotein complex that forms a strong mechanical link between the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix; typical of, but not confined to, muscle cells. The complex is composed of transmembrane, cytoplasmic, and extracellular proteins, including dystrophin, sarcoglycans, dystroglycan, dystrobrevins, syntrophins, sarcospan, caveolin-3, and NO synthase.

A protein complex that includes alpha-, beta1-, beta2-syntrophins and syntrophin-like proteins; the syntrophin complex binds to the second half of the carboxy-terminal domain of dystrophin; also associates with neuronal nitric oxide synthase.

A lipid bilayer along with all the proteins and protein complexes embedded in it an attached to it.

The contractile element of skeletal and cardiac muscle; a long, highly organized bundle of actin, myosin, and other proteins that contracts by a sliding filament mechanism.

Platelike region of a muscle sarcomere to which the plus ends of actin filaments are attached.

Platelike region of a muscle sarcomere to which the plus ends of actin filaments are attached.

A thin sheetlike process extended by the leading edge of a migrating cell or extending cell process; contains a dense meshwork of actin filaments.

A cellular component that forms a specialized region of connection between two or more cells or between a cell and the extracellular matrix. At a cell junction, anchoring proteins extend through the plasma membrane to link cytoskeletal proteins in one cell to cytoskeletal proteins in neighboring cells or to proteins in the extracellular matrix.

A cell junction that forms a connection between a cell and the extracellular matrix.

A cell junction that forms a connection between a cell and the extracellular matrix.

A small subcellular vesicle, surrounded by a membrane, that is formed from the Golgi apparatus and contains a highly concentrated protein destined for secretion. Secretory granules move towards the periphery of the cell and upon stimulation, their membranes fuse with the cell membrane, and their protein load is exteriorized. Processing of the contained protein may take place in secretory granules.

The long process of a neuron that conducts nerve impulses, usually away from the cell body to the terminals and varicosities, which are sites of storage and release of neurotransmitter.

The lipid bilayer surrounding a synaptic vesicle.

The outer membrane of a muscle cell, consisting of the plasma membrane, a covering basement membrane (about 100 nm thick and sometimes common to more than one fiber), and the associated loose network of collagen fibers.

A prolongation or process extending from a cell, e.g. a flagellum or axon.

A prolongation or process extending from a nerve cell, e.g. an axon or dendrite.

The portion of a neuron that includes the nucleus, but excludes cell projections such as axons and dendrites.

Regular periodic sub membranous arrays of vinculin in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells, these arrays link Z-discs to the sarcolemma and are associated with links to extracellular matrix.

Regular periodic sub membranous arrays of vinculin in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells, these arrays link Z-discs to the sarcolemma and are associated with links to extracellular matrix.

The specialized, terminal region of a neuron projection such as an axon or a dendrite.

The specialized, terminal region of a neuron projection such as an axon or a dendrite.

Any of the small (10-200 nm), heterogeneous, highly dynamic, sterol- and sphingolipid-enriched membrane domains that compartmentalize cellular processes. Small rafts can sometimes be stabilized to form larger platforms through protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions.

The junction between a nerve fiber of one neuron and another neuron, muscle fiber or glial cell. As the nerve fiber approaches the synapse it enlarges into a specialized structure, the presynaptic nerve ending, which contains mitochondria and synaptic vesicles. At the tip of the nerve ending is the presynaptic membrane; facing it, and separated from it by a minute cleft (the synaptic cleft) is a specialized area of membrane on the receiving cell, known as the postsynaptic membrane. In response to the arrival of nerve impulses, the presynaptic nerve ending secretes molecules of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. These diffuse across the cleft and transmit the signal to the postsynaptic membrane.

Cytoplasm situated near, or occurring around, the nucleus.

A vesicle that is released into the extracellular region by fusion of the limiting endosomal membrane of a multivesicular body with the plasma membrane. Extracellular exosomes, also simply called exosomes, have a diameter of about 40-100 nm.

A prolongation or process extending from the soma of an astrocyte and wrapping around neurons.

The side (leaflet) of the mitochondrial inner membrane that faces the matrix.