The process in which the cytoplasm of the outermost cells of the vertebrate epidermis is replaced by keratin. Keratinization occurs in the stratum corneum, feathers, hair, claws, nails, hooves, and horns.

A type of programmed cell death that occurs in the epidermis, morphologically and biochemically distinct from apoptosis. It leads to the formation of corneocytes, i.e. dead keratinocytes containing an amalgam of specific proteins (e.g., keratin, loricrin, SPR and involucrin) and lipids (e.g., fatty acids and ceramides), which are necessary for the function of the cornified skin layer (mechanical resistance, elasticity, water repellence and structural stability).

Control of the spatial distribution of intermediate filaments; includes organizing filaments into meshworks, bundles, or other structures, as by cross-linking.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a lipopolysaccharide stimulus; lipopolysaccharide is a major component of the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a muramyl dipeptide stimulus. Muramyl dipeptide is derived from peptidoglycan.

Control of the spatial distribution of intermediate filaments; includes organizing filaments into meshworks, bundles, or other structures, as by cross-linking.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the epidermis over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The epidermis is the outer epithelial layer of an animal, it may be a single layer that produces an extracellular material (e.g. the cuticle of arthropods) or a complex stratified squamous epithelium, as in the case of many vertebrate species.

The formation of a protein heterotetramer, a macromolecular structure consisting of four noncovalently associated subunits, of which not all are identical.

The sliding of actin thin filaments and myosin thick filaments past each other in muscle contraction. This involves a process of interaction of myosin located on a thick filament with actin located on a thin filament. During this process ATP is split and forces are generated.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures comprising intermediate filaments and their associated proteins.

The assembly of neurofilaments into bundles, in which the filaments are longitudinally oriented, with numerous crossbridges between them. Neurofilament bundles may be cross-linked to each other, to membrane-bounded organelles or other cytoskeletal structures such as microtubules.

A process in which force is generated within muscle tissue, resulting in a change in muscle geometry. Force generation involves a chemo-mechanical energy conversion step that is carried out by the actin/myosin complex activity, which generates force through ATP hydrolysis.

The specific movement from place to place of an organism in response to external or internal stimuli. Locomotion of a whole organism in a manner dependent upon some combination of that organism's internal state and external conditions.

The assembly of neurofilaments into bundles, in which the filaments are longitudinally oriented, with numerous crossbridges between them. Neurofilament bundles may be cross-linked to each other, to membrane-bounded organelles or other cytoskeletal structures such as microtubules.

Any cellular process that depends upon or alters the intermediate filament cytoskeleton, that part of the cytoskeleton comprising intermediate filaments and their associated proteins.

Control of the spatial distribution of intermediate filaments; includes organizing filaments into meshworks, bundles, or other structures, as by cross-linking.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of epidermis development.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of proteins by the translation of mRNA or circRNA.

The progression of a skeletal muscle organ over time from its initial formation to its mature state. A skeletal muscle organ includes the skeletal muscle tissue and its associated connective tissue.

An intracellular protein kinase cascade containing at least a MAPK, a MAPKK and a MAP3K. The cascade can also contain an additional tiers: the upstream MAP4K. The kinases in each tier phosphorylate and activate the kinase in the downstream tier to transmit a signal within a cell.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures.

A developmental process that is a deterioration and loss of function over time. Aging includes loss of functions such as resistance to disease, homeostasis, and fertility, as well as wear and tear. Aging includes cellular senescence, but is more inclusive. May precede death and may succeed developmental maturation (GO:0021700).

The directed movement of organelles or molecules along microtubules from the cell body toward the cell periphery in nerve cell axons.

The directed movement of organelles or molecules along microtubules from the cell periphery toward the cell body in nerve cell axons.

The process in which anatomical structures are generated and organized. Morphogenesis pertains to the creation of form.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of a cytokine to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

The directed movement of mitochondria along microtubules in nerve cell axons.

The process in which the anatomical structures of the hair follicle are generated and organized.

The regrowth of fin tissue following its loss or destruction.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of collagen, any of a group of fibrous proteins of very high tensile strength that form the main component of connective tissue in animals.

The cyclical phases of growth (anagen), regression (catagen), quiescence (telogen), and shedding (exogen) in the life of a hair; one of the collection or mass of filaments growing from the skin of an animal, and forming a covering for a part of the head or for any part or the whole of the body.

Any process that modulates the propensity of mRNA molecules to degradation. Includes processes that both stabilize and destabilize mRNAs.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures comprising intermediate filaments and their associated proteins.

Control of the spatial distribution of intermediate filaments; includes organizing filaments into meshworks, bundles, or other structures, as by cross-linking.

Control of the spatial distribution of intermediate filaments; includes organizing filaments into meshworks, bundles, or other structures, as by cross-linking.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a lipopolysaccharide stimulus; lipopolysaccharide is a major component of the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a muramyl dipeptide stimulus. Muramyl dipeptide is derived from peptidoglycan.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of N-methyl-D-aspartate selective glutamate receptor activity.

A developmental process that is a deterioration and loss of function over time. Aging includes loss of functions such as resistance to disease, homeostasis, and fertility, as well as wear and tear. Aging includes cellular senescence, but is more inclusive. May precede death and may succeed developmental maturation (GO:0021700).

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires specialized features of an epithelial cell, any of the cells making up an epithelium.

The process in which the anatomical structures of the hair follicle are generated and organized.

The regrowth of lost or destroyed tissues.

The cyclical phases of growth (anagen), regression (catagen), quiescence (telogen), and shedding (exogen) in the life of a hair; one of the collection or mass of filaments growing from the skin of an animal, and forming a covering for a part of the head or for any part or the whole of the body.

The directed movement of Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane conductance Regulator (CFTR) protein from the Golgi to the plasma membrane.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of cell death by apoptotic process.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of protein complex assembly.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of chaperone-mediated autophagy.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of chaperone-mediated autophagy.

The process in which the anatomical structures of epithelia are generated and organized. An epithelium consists of closely packed cells arranged in one or more layers, that covers the outer surfaces of the body or lines any internal cavity or tube.

The developmental sequence of events leading to the formation of adult skeletal muscle tissue. The main events are: the fusion of myoblasts to form myotubes that increase in size by further fusion to them of myoblasts, the formation of myofibrils within their cytoplasm and the establishment of functional neuromuscular junctions with motor neurons. At this stage they can be regarded as mature muscle fibers.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of cardiac muscle contraction by changing the calcium ion signals that trigger contraction.

Formation of myofibrils, the repeating units of striated muscle.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires specialized features of an epithelial cell, any of the cells making up an epithelium.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of a tumor necrosis factor to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

The formation of the bundles of intermediate filaments. Intermediate filament-associated proteins (IFAPs) cross-link intermediate filaments with one another, forming a bundle or a network, and with other cell structures, including the plasma membrane. The organization of intermediate filaments and their supportive function in various cells types depends in large part on their linkage to other cell structures via IFAPs.

The formation of the bundles of intermediate filaments. Intermediate filament-associated proteins (IFAPs) cross-link intermediate filaments with one another, forming a bundle or a network, and with other cell structures, including the plasma membrane. The organization of intermediate filaments and their supportive function in various cells types depends in large part on their linkage to other cell structures via IFAPs.

The myofibril assembly process that results in the organization of muscle actomyosin into sarcomeres. The sarcomere is the repeating unit of a myofibril in a muscle cell, composed of an array of overlapping thick and thin filaments between two adjacent Z discs.

The myofibril assembly process that results in the organization of muscle actomyosin into sarcomeres. The sarcomere is the repeating unit of a myofibril in a muscle cell, composed of an array of overlapping thick and thin filaments between two adjacent Z discs.

The process in which the anatomical structures of a neuron projection are generated and organized. A neuron projection is any process extending from a neural cell, such as axons or dendrites.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of cardiac muscle contraction.

The multicellular organismal process in which the heart decreases in volume in a characteristic way to propel blood through the body.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures comprising neurofilaments and their associated proteins.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires specialized features of the embryonic placenta.

A series of molecular signals in which a signal is conveyed from the cell surface to trigger the apoptotic death of a cell. The pathway starts with either a ligand binding to a cell surface receptor, or a ligand being withdrawn from a cell surface receptor (e.g. in the case of signaling by dependence receptors), and ends when the execution phase of apoptosis is triggered.

Any apoptotic process in a hepatocyte, the main structural component of the liver.

The process in which the anatomical structures of epithelia are generated and organized. An epithelium consists of closely packed cells arranged in one or more layers, that covers the outer surfaces of the body or lines any internal cavity or tube.

The process in which the anatomical structures of epithelia are generated and organized. An epithelium consists of closely packed cells arranged in one or more layers, that covers the outer surfaces of the body or lines any internal cavity or tube.

A process in which force is generated within muscle tissue, resulting in a change in muscle geometry. Force generation involves a chemo-mechanical energy conversion step that is carried out by the actin/myosin complex activity, which generates force through ATP hydrolysis.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of heart contraction. Heart contraction is the process in which the heart decreases in volume in a characteristic way to propel blood through the body.

The directed movement of organelles or molecules along microtubules from the cell body toward the cell periphery in nerve cell axons.

The directed movement of organelles or molecules along microtubules from the cell periphery toward the cell body in nerve cell axons.

Any process that decreases the rate, frequency or extent of neuron projection development. Neuron projection development is the process whose specific outcome is the progression of a neuron projection over time, from its formation to the mature structure. A neuron projection is any process extending from a neural cell, such as axons or dendrites (collectively called neurites).

The process aimed at the progression of an astrocyte over time, from initial commitment of the cell to a specific fate, to the fully functional differentiated cell. An astrocyte is the most abundant type of glial cell. Astrocytes provide support for neurons and regulate the environment in which they function.

The formation of a covalent cross-link between or within protein chains.

The directed movement of mitochondria along microtubules in nerve cell axons.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the spinal cord over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The spinal cord primarily conducts sensory and motor nerve impulses between the brain and the peripheral nervous tissues.

The progression of the hippocampus over time from its initial formation until its mature state.

The progression of the cerebral cortex over time from its initial formation until its mature state. The cerebral cortex is the outer layered region of the telencephalon.

The process in which the cytoplasm of the outermost cells of the vertebrate epidermis is replaced by keratin. Keratinization occurs in the stratum corneum, feathers, hair, claws, nails, hooves, and horns.

The process in which the cytoplasm of the outermost cells of the vertebrate epidermis is replaced by keratin. Keratinization occurs in the stratum corneum, feathers, hair, claws, nails, hooves, and horns.

The assembly of neurofilaments into bundles, in which the filaments are longitudinally oriented, with numerous crossbridges between them. Neurofilament bundles may be cross-linked to each other, to membrane-bounded organelles or other cytoskeletal structures such as microtubules.

The assembly of neurofilaments into bundles, in which the filaments are longitudinally oriented, with numerous crossbridges between them. Neurofilament bundles may be cross-linked to each other, to membrane-bounded organelles or other cytoskeletal structures such as microtubules.

The series of events that restore integrity to a damaged tissue, following an injury.

The series of events that restore integrity to a damaged tissue, following an injury.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the skin over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The skin is the external membranous integument of an animal. In vertebrates the skin generally consists of two layers, an outer nonsensitive and nonvascular epidermis (cuticle or skarfskin) composed of cells which are constantly growing and multiplying in the deeper, and being thrown off in the superficial layers, as well as an inner vascular dermis (cutis, corium or true skin) composed mostly of connective tissue.

Any cellular process that depends upon or alters the intermediate filament cytoskeleton, that part of the cytoskeleton comprising intermediate filaments and their associated proteins.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures comprising intermediate filaments and their associated proteins.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the rate or extent of epithelial cell proliferation.

Reactions triggered in response to the presence of a Gram-positive bacterium that act to protect the cell or organism.

The directed movement of a keratinocyte, epidermal cells which synthesize keratin, from one site to another.

The process in which neuroepithelial cells of the neural tube give rise to Brgmann glial cells, specialized bipotential progenitors cells of the cerebellum. Differentiation includes the processes involved in commitment of a cell to a specific fate.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures comprising neurofilaments and their associated proteins.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of glial cell proliferation.

Establishment of the epithelial barrier, the functional barrier in the skin that limits its permeability.

An immune response against microbes mediated by anti-microbial peptides in body fluid.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an acrylamide stimulus.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures comprising microtubules and their associated proteins.

The change in form (cell shape and size) that occurs when relatively unspecialized cells, e.g. embryonic or regenerative cells, acquire specialized structural and/or functional features that characterize the cells, tissues, or organs of the mature organism or some other relatively stable phase of the organism's life history.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the embryo in the uterus over time, from formation of the zygote in the oviduct, to birth. An example of this process is found in Mus musculus.

Any process in which an organism stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of cytolysis by that organism of cells in its host organism. The host is defined as the larger of the organisms involved in a symbiotic interaction.

The immediate defensive reaction (by vertebrate tissue) to infection or injury caused by chemical or physical agents. The process is characterized by local vasodilation, extravasation of plasma into intercellular spaces and accumulation of white blood cells and macrophages.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of an extracellular ligand to the receptor Notch on the surface of a target cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

The biological process whose specific outcome is the progression of a multicellular organism over time from an initial condition (e.g. a zygote or a young adult) to a later condition (e.g. a multicellular animal or an aged adult).

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the muscle over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The muscle is an organ consisting of a tissue made up of various elongated cells that are specialized to contract and thus to produce movement and mechanical work.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of cell proliferation.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the epidermis over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The epidermis is the outer epithelial layer of an animal, it may be a single layer that produces an extracellular material (e.g. the cuticle of arthropods) or a complex stratified squamous epithelium, as in the case of many vertebrate species.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of deprivation of nourishment.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an electromagnetic radiation stimulus. Electromagnetic radiation is a propagating wave in space with electric and magnetic components. These components oscillate at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a zinc ion stimulus.

Any process that increases the frequency, rate or extent of gene expression. Gene expression is the process in which a gene's coding sequence is converted into a mature gene product or products (proteins or RNA). This includes the production of an RNA transcript as well as any processing to produce a mature RNA product or an mRNA or circRNA (for protein-coding genes) and the translation of that mRNA or circRNA into protein. Protein maturation is included when required to form an active form of a product from an inactive precursor form.

The process in which relatively unspecialized cells, e.g. embryonic or regenerative cells, acquire specialized structural and/or functional features that characterize the cells, tissues, or organs of the mature organism or some other relatively stable phase of the organism's life history. Differentiation includes the processes involved in commitment of a cell to a specific fate and its subsequent development to the mature state.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires specialized features of a keratinocyte.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of cell migration.

Any process that modulates the rate, direction or extent of axon growth such that the correct diameter is attained and maintained.

Assembly of hemidesmosomes, integrin-containing protein complexes that bind to laminin in the basal lamina. Hemidesmosomes form the contact between the basal surface of epithelial cells and the underlying basal lamina.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of enzymatic generation of superoxide by a cell.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of collagen, any of a group of fibrous proteins of very high tensile strength that form the main component of connective tissue in animals.

A series of molecular signals initiated by the binding of a tumor necrosis factor to a receptor on the surface of a cell, and ending with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. transcription.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of oxidative stress, a state often resulting from exposure to high levels of reactive oxygen species, e.g. superoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radicals.

The migration of individual cells within the blastocyst to help establish the multi-layered body plan of the organism (gastrulation). For example, the migration of cells from the surface to the interior of the embryo (ingression).

The directed movement of Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane conductance Regulator (CFTR) protein from the Golgi to the plasma membrane.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of cell death by apoptotic process.

Any process that modulates the propensity of mRNA molecules to degradation. Includes processes that both stabilize and destabilize mRNAs.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the skin over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The skin is the external membranous integument of an animal. In vertebrates the skin generally consists of two layers, an outer nonsensitive and nonvascular epidermis (cuticle or skarfskin) composed of cells which are constantly growing and multiplying in the deeper, and being thrown off in the superficial layers, as well as an inner vascular dermis (cutis, corium or true skin) composed mostly of connective tissue.

Innate immune responses are defense responses mediated by germline encoded components that directly recognize components of potential pathogens.

Assembly or disassembly of intermediate filaments by the addition or removal of component parts from a filament.

Assembly or disassembly of intermediate filaments by the addition or removal of component parts from a filament.

Assembly of intermediate filaments by the addition of component monomers to a filament. Polymerization of intermediate filament proteins results from interactions among several distinct binding sites on the constituent proteins. Nuclear lamin head-to-tail polymers arise from one such interaction. Deletion analysis localized the binding sites to the ends of the rod domain that are highly conserved among all intermediate filament proteins. Data indicate that one type of interaction in intermediate filament protein polymerization is the longitudinal binding of dimers via the conserved end segments of the coiled-coil rod domain.

The formation of the bundles of intermediate filaments. Intermediate filament-associated proteins (IFAPs) cross-link intermediate filaments with one another, forming a bundle or a network, and with other cell structures, including the plasma membrane. The organization of intermediate filaments and their supportive function in various cells types depends in large part on their linkage to other cell structures via IFAPs.

The myofibril assembly process that results in the organization of muscle actomyosin into sarcomeres. The sarcomere is the repeating unit of a myofibril in a muscle cell, composed of an array of overlapping thick and thin filaments between two adjacent Z discs.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of keratinocyte differentiation.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of epidermis development.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of the chemical reactions and pathways resulting in the formation of proteins by the translation of mRNA or circRNA.

The process in which the anatomical structures of the notochord are generated and organized. The notochord is a mesoderm-derived structure located ventral of the developing nerve cord. In vertebrates, the notochord serves as a core around which other mesodermal cells form the vertebrae. In the most primitive chordates, which lack vertebrae, the notochord persists as a substitute for a vertebral column.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the controlled release of a protein from a cell.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of axonogenesis, the generation of an axon, the long process of a neuron.

Reactions triggered in response to the presence of a Gram-positive bacterium that act to protect the cell or organism.

The formation of a protein heterotetramer, a macromolecular structure consisting of four noncovalently associated subunits, of which not all are identical.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a hydrostatic pressure stimulus. Hydrostatic pressure is the force acting on an object in a system where the fluid is at rest (as opposed to moving). The weight of the fluid above the object creates pressure on it.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a stimulus from another living organism.

The killing by an organism of a cell in a second organism by means of the rupture of cell membranes and the loss of cytoplasm, where the two organisms are in a symbiotic interaction.

The killing by an organism of a cell in a second organism by means of the rupture of cell membranes and the loss of cytoplasm, where the two organisms are in a symbiotic interaction.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of a notochord cell over time, from its formation to its mature structure. Cell development does not include the steps involved in committing a cell to a specific fate.

Any process that activates or increases the rate or extent of glial cell proliferation.

The cascade of processes by which a signal interacts with a receptor, causing a change in the activity of a SMAD protein, and ultimately effecting a change in the functioning of the cell.

The progression of an axon over time. Covers axonogenesis (de novo generation of an axon) and axon regeneration (regrowth), as well as processes pertaining to the progression of the axon over time (fasciculation and defasciculation).

An immune response against microbes mediated by anti-microbial peptides in body fluid.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of a lens fiber cell over time, from its formation to the mature structure. Cell development does not include the steps involved in committing a cell to a lens fiber cell fate. A lens fiber cell is any of the elongated, tightly packed cells that make up the bulk of the mature lens in a camera-type eye.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a lipopolysaccharide stimulus; lipopolysaccharide is a major component of the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a muramyl dipeptide stimulus. Muramyl dipeptide is derived from peptidoglycan.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an interferon-gamma stimulus. Interferon gamma is the only member of the type II interferon found so far.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of stimulus by estradiol, a C18 steroid hormone hydroxylated at C3 and C17 that acts as a potent estrogen.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of Schwann cell migration.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a sodium arsenite stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a sodium arsenite stimulus.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of chaperone-mediated autophagy.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a leukemia inhibitory factor stimulus.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of entry of bacterium into host cell.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures comprising microtubules and their associated proteins.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures comprising microtubules and their associated proteins.

A periodic process in which immature ovarian follicles degenerate and are subsequently re-absorbed.

A periodic process in which immature ovarian follicles degenerate and are subsequently re-absorbed.

Any process involved in the activation of any of the steps of the lectin pathway of the complement cascade which allows for the direct killing of microbes and the regulation of other immune processes.

Any process involved in the activation of any of the steps of the lectin pathway of the complement cascade which allows for the direct killing of microbes and the regulation of other immune processes.

A tissue homeostatic process involved in the maintenance of an internal equilibrium within the retina of the eye, including control of cellular proliferation and death and control of metabolic function.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the hair follicle over time, from its formation to the mature structure. A hair follicle is a tube-like opening in the epidermis where the hair shaft develops and into which the sebaceous glands open.

The process in which precursor cell type acquires the specialized features of a hematopoietic progenitor cell, a class of cell types including myeloid progenitor cells and lymphoid progenitor cells.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of a keratinocyte over time, from its formation to the mature structure.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of a keratinocyte over time, from its formation to the mature structure.

A programmed cell death process which begins when a cell receives an internal (e.g. DNA damage) or external signal (e.g. an extracellular death ligand), and proceeds through a series of biochemical events (signaling pathway phase) which trigger an execution phase. The execution phase is the last step of an apoptotic process, and is typically characterized by rounding-up of the cell, retraction of pseudopodes, reduction of cellular volume (pyknosis), chromatin condensation, nuclear fragmentation (karyorrhexis), plasma membrane blebbing and fragmentation of the cell into apoptotic bodies. When the execution phase is completed, the cell has died.

The immediate defensive reaction (by vertebrate tissue) to infection or injury caused by chemical or physical agents. The process is characterized by local vasodilation, extravasation of plasma into intercellular spaces and accumulation of white blood cells and macrophages.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of oxidative stress, a state often resulting from exposure to high levels of reactive oxygen species, e.g. superoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radicals.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures.

The cellular process in which a signal is conveyed to trigger a change in the activity or state of a cell. Signal transduction begins with reception of a signal (e.g. a ligand binding to a receptor or receptor activation by a stimulus such as light), or for signal transduction in the absence of ligand, signal-withdrawal or the activity of a constitutively active receptor. Signal transduction ends with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. regulation of transcription or regulation of a metabolic process. Signal transduction covers signaling from receptors located on the surface of the cell and signaling via molecules located within the cell. For signaling between cells, signal transduction is restricted to events at and within the receiving cell.

The cellular process in which a signal is conveyed to trigger a change in the activity or state of a cell. Signal transduction begins with reception of a signal (e.g. a ligand binding to a receptor or receptor activation by a stimulus such as light), or for signal transduction in the absence of ligand, signal-withdrawal or the activity of a constitutively active receptor. Signal transduction ends with regulation of a downstream cellular process, e.g. regulation of transcription or regulation of a metabolic process. Signal transduction covers signaling from receptors located on the surface of the cell and signaling via molecules located within the cell. For signaling between cells, signal transduction is restricted to events at and within the receiving cell.

The process of formation of spermatozoa, including spermatocytogenesis and spermiogenesis.

The process of formation of spermatozoa, including spermatocytogenesis and spermiogenesis.

The process of formation of spermatozoa, including spermatocytogenesis and spermiogenesis.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the ectoderm over time, from its formation to the mature structure. In animal embryos, the ectoderm is the outer germ layer of the embryo, formed during gastrulation.

De novo generation of a long process of a neuron, including the terminal branched region. Refers to the morphogenesis or creation of shape or form of the developing axon, which carries efferent (outgoing) action potentials from the cell body towards target cells.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the brain over time, from its formation to the mature structure. Brain development begins with patterning events in the neural tube and ends with the mature structure that is the center of thought and emotion. The brain is responsible for the coordination and control of bodily activities and the interpretation of information from the senses (sight, hearing, smell, etc.).

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the brain over time, from its formation to the mature structure. Brain development begins with patterning events in the neural tube and ends with the mature structure that is the center of thought and emotion. The brain is responsible for the coordination and control of bodily activities and the interpretation of information from the senses (sight, hearing, smell, etc.).

A developmental process that is a deterioration and loss of function over time. Aging includes loss of functions such as resistance to disease, homeostasis, and fertility, as well as wear and tear. Aging includes cellular senescence, but is more inclusive. May precede death and may succeed developmental maturation (GO:0021700).

The series of events required for an organism to receive a visual stimulus, convert it to a molecular signal, and recognize and characterize the signal. Visual stimuli are detected in the form of photons and are processed to form an image.

The directed movement of organelles or molecules along microtubules in neuron projections.

The directed movement of organelles or molecules along microtubules from the cell body toward the cell periphery in nerve cell axons.

The directed movement of organelles or molecules along microtubules from the cell periphery toward the cell body in nerve cell axons.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the epidermis over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The epidermis is the outer epithelial layer of an animal, it may be a single layer that produces an extracellular material (e.g. the cuticle of arthropods) or a complex stratified squamous epithelium, as in the case of many vertebrate species.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of deprivation of nourishment.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a stimulus indicating damage to the organism.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a stimulus indicating damage to the organism.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a toxic stimulus.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of an embryo over time, from zygote formation until the end of the embryonic life stage. The end of the embryonic life stage is organism-specific and may be somewhat arbitrary; for mammals it is usually considered to be birth, for insects the hatching of the first instar larva from the eggshell.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an organic substance stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a ionizing radiation stimulus. Ionizing radiation is radiation with sufficient energy to remove electrons from atoms and may arise from spontaneous decay of unstable isotopes, resulting in alpha and beta particles and gamma rays. Ionizing radiation also includes X-rays.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a stimulus from selenium ion.

Any process that increases the frequency or rate of the multiplication or reproduction of Schwann cells, resulting in the expansion of their population. Schwann cells are a type of glial cell in the peripheral nervous system.

Any process that decreases the rate, frequency or extent of neuron projection development. Neuron projection development is the process whose specific outcome is the progression of a neuron projection over time, from its formation to the mature structure. A neuron projection is any process extending from a neural cell, such as axons or dendrites (collectively called neurites).

The regrowth of axons outside the central nervous system (outside the brain and spinal cord) following an axonal injury.

The regrowth of axons outside the central nervous system (outside the brain and spinal cord) following an axonal injury.

The series of molecular signals initiated by binding of a Wnt protein to a frizzled family receptor on the surface of the target cell and ending with a change in cell state.

The formation of a covalent cross-link between or within protein chains.

The directed movement of mitochondria along microtubules in nerve cell axons.

The progression of the substantia nigra over time from its initial formation until its mature state. The substantia nigra is the layer of gray substance that separates the posterior parts of the cerebral peduncles (tegmentum mesencephali) from the anterior parts; it normally includes a posterior compact part with many pigmented cells (pars compacta) and an anterior reticular part whose cells contain little pigment (pars reticularis).

Formation of a prolongation or process extending from a cell, e.g. a flagellum or axon.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of an extracellular matrix.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires specialized features of a keratinocyte.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires specialized features of a keratinocyte.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate, extent or direction of cell growth.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of cell migration.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires specialized features of an epithelial cell, any of the cells making up an epithelium.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires specialized features of an epithelial cell, any of the cells making up an epithelium.

The process in which the anatomical structures of the hair follicle are generated and organized.

The regrowth of neuronal processes such as axons or dendrites in response to their loss or damage.

The regrowth of axons following their loss or damage.

The regrowth of axons following their loss or damage.

The regrowth of axons following their loss or damage.

Any process that modulates the rate, direction or extent of axon growth such that the correct diameter is attained and maintained.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of a neuron projection over time, from its formation to the mature structure. A neuron projection is any process extending from a neural cell, such as axons or dendrites (collectively called neurites).

The process in which the cytoplasm of the outermost cells of the vertebrate epidermis is replaced by keratin. Keratinization occurs in the stratum corneum, feathers, hair, claws, nails, hooves, and horns.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of stimulus by estradiol, a C18 steroid hormone hydroxylated at C3 and C17 that acts as a potent estrogen.

A change in the morphology or behavior of a keratinocyte resulting from exposure to an activating factor such as a cellular or soluble ligand. Upon activation, keratinocytes become migratory and hyperproliferative, and produce growth factors and cytokines.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a vitamin D stimulus.

The assembly of neurofilaments into bundles, in which the filaments are longitudinally oriented, with numerous crossbridges between them. Neurofilament bundles may be cross-linked to each other, to membrane-bounded organelles or other cytoskeletal structures such as microtubules.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of a nail over time, from its formation to the mature structure. A nail is a horn-like envelope covering the outer end of a finger or toe, and consists of the nail plate, the nail matrix and the nail bed below it, and the grooves surrounding it.

Self-propelled movement of a cell or organism from one location to another.

Self-propelled movement of a cell or organism from one location to another.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a cocaine stimulus. Cocaine is a crystalline alkaloid obtained from the leaves of the coca plant.

A process that solubilizes fibrin in the bloodstream of a multicellular organism, chiefly by the proteolytic action of plasmin.

The regulated exocytosis of secretory granules containing preformed mediators such as proteases, lipases, and inflammatory mediators by a neutrophil.

The regrowth of skeletal muscle tissue to repair injured or damaged muscle fibers in the postnatal stage.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a peptide hormone stimulus. A peptide hormone is any of a class of peptides that are secreted into the blood stream and have endocrine functions in living animals.

The accumulation of pigment in an organism, tissue or cell, either by increased deposition or by increased number of cells.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of cell death by apoptotic process in neurons.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of cell death by apoptotic process in neurons.

The process in which the anatomical structures of the tongue are generated and organized. The tongue is the movable, muscular organ on the floor of the mouth of most vertebrates, in man other mammals is the principal organ of taste, aids in the prehension of food, in swallowing, and in modifying the voice as in speech.

The multiplication or reproduction of keratinocytes, resulting in the expansion of a cell population. Keratinocytes are epidermal cells which synthesize keratin and undergo a characteristic change as they move upward from the basal layers of the epidermis to the cornified (horny) layer of the skin.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of stimulus by an estrogen, C18 steroid hormones that can stimulate the development of female sexual characteristics.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of the increase in the symbiont's size or mass on or near the cells or tissues of the host organism.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of an fibroblast growth factor stimulus.

Innate immune responses are defense responses mediated by germline encoded components that directly recognize components of potential pathogens.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures comprising intermediate filaments and their associated proteins.

The formation of the bundles of intermediate filaments. Intermediate filament-associated proteins (IFAPs) cross-link intermediate filaments with one another, forming a bundle or a network, and with other cell structures, including the plasma membrane. The organization of intermediate filaments and their supportive function in various cells types depends in large part on their linkage to other cell structures via IFAPs.

The process in which a relatively unspecialized cell acquires specialized features of an adipocyte, an animal connective tissue cell specialized for the synthesis and storage of fat.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of angiogenesis.

The cellular and vascular changes occurring in the endometrium of the pregnant uterus just after the onset of blastocyst implantation. This process involves the proliferation and differentiation of the fibroblast-like endometrial stromal cells into large, polyploid decidual cells that eventually form the maternal component of the placenta.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of the sebaceous gland over time, from its formation to the mature structure.

The process in which the anatomical structures of a neuron projection are generated and organized. A neuron projection is any process extending from a neural cell, such as axons or dendrites.

Generation of a long process from a neuron whose cell body resides in the peripheral nervous system. The axon carries action potential from the cell body towards target cells.

Any process that stops, prevents or reduces the rate or extent of epithelial cell proliferation.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the controlled release of a protein from a cell.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of the inflammatory response.

Any process that stops, prevents, or reduces the frequency, rate or extent of the inflammatory response.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of axonogenesis, the generation of an axon, the long process of a neuron.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of axonogenesis.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of axonogenesis.

Any process that an organism uses to control its balance, the orientation of the organism (or the head of the organism) in relation to the source of gravity. In humans and animals, balance is perceived through visual cues, the labyrinth system of the inner ears and information from skin pressure receptors and muscle and joint receptors.

Any process that an organism uses to control its balance, the orientation of the organism (or the head of the organism) in relation to the source of gravity. In humans and animals, balance is perceived through visual cues, the labyrinth system of the inner ears and information from skin pressure receptors and muscle and joint receptors.

The process of creating protein polymers, compounds composed of a large number of component monomers; polymeric proteins may be made up of different or identical monomers. Polymerization occurs by the addition of extra monomers to an existing poly- or oligomeric protein.

The process of creating protein polymers, compounds composed of a large number of component monomers; polymeric proteins may be made up of different or identical monomers. Polymerization occurs by the addition of extra monomers to an existing poly- or oligomeric protein.

The formation of a protein heterotetramer, a macromolecular structure consisting of four noncovalently associated subunits, of which not all are identical.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a corticosterone stimulus. Corticosterone is a 21 carbon steroid hormone of the corticosteroid type, produced in the cortex of the adrenal glands. In many species, corticosterone is the principal glucocorticoid, involved in regulation of fuel metabolism, immune reactions, and stress responses.

The directed movement of a keratinocyte, epidermal cells which synthesize keratin, from one site to another.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of the directed movement of a neurotransmitter into a neuron or glial cell.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a hydrostatic pressure stimulus. Hydrostatic pressure is the force acting on an object in a system where the fluid is at rest (as opposed to moving). The weight of the fluid above the object creates pressure on it.

Any process that activates or increases the frequency, rate or extent of hair follicle development.

A process that is carried out at the cellular level which results in the assembly, arrangement of constituent parts, or disassembly of cytoskeletal structures comprising neurofilaments and their associated proteins.

The process that organizes a synapse so that it attains its fully functional state. Synaptic maturation plays a critical role in the establishment of effective synaptic connections in early development.

The process that organizes a synapse so that it attains its fully functional state. Synaptic maturation plays a critical role in the establishment of effective synaptic connections in early development.

A process that modulates synaptic plasticity such that synapses are changed resulting in the increase in the rate, or frequency of synaptic transmission at the synapse.

The process whose specific outcome is the progression of an epithelium over time, from its formation to the mature structure. An epithelium is a tissue that covers the internal or external surfaces of an anatomical structure.

The progression of the cornea over time, from its formation to the mature structure. The cornea is the transparent structure that covers the anterior of the eye.

Establishment of the epithelial barrier, the functional barrier in the skin that limits its permeability.

The progression of an axon over time. Covers axonogenesis (de novo generation of an axon) and axon regeneration (regrowth), as well as processes pertaining to the progression of the axon over time (fasciculation and defasciculation).

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a calcium ion stimulus.

Any process that results in a change in state or activity of a cell (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a retinoic acid stimulus.

The attachment of one cell to another cell via adhesion molecules.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of Schwann cell migration.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of organelle transport along microtubule.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of organelle transport along microtubule.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of chaperone-mediated autophagy.

Any process that modulates the frequency, rate or extent of chaperone-mediated autophagy.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

A vesicle that is released into the extracellular region by fusion of the limiting endosomal membrane of a multivesicular body with the plasma membrane. Extracellular exosomes, also simply called exosomes, have a diameter of about 40-100 nm.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

A cytoskeletal structure that forms a distinct elongated structure, characteristically 10 nm in diameter, that occurs in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. Intermediate filaments form a fibrous system, composed of chemically heterogeneous subunits and involved in mechanically integrating the various components of the cytoplasmic space. Intermediate filaments may be divided into five chemically distinct classes: Type I, acidic keratins; Type II, basic keratins; Type III, including desmin, vimentin and others; Type IV, neurofilaments and related filaments; and Type V, lamins.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

A cytoskeletal structure that forms a distinct elongated structure, characteristically 10 nm in diameter, that occurs in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. Intermediate filaments form a fibrous system, composed of chemically heterogeneous subunits and involved in mechanically integrating the various components of the cytoplasmic space. Intermediate filaments may be divided into five chemically distinct classes: Type I, acidic keratins; Type II, basic keratins; Type III, including desmin, vimentin and others; Type IV, neurofilaments and related filaments; and Type V, lamins.

A cytoskeletal structure that forms a distinct elongated structure, characteristically 10 nm in diameter, that occurs in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. Intermediate filaments form a fibrous system, composed of chemically heterogeneous subunits and involved in mechanically integrating the various components of the cytoplasmic space. Intermediate filaments may be divided into five chemically distinct classes: Type I, acidic keratins; Type II, basic keratins; Type III, including desmin, vimentin and others; Type IV, neurofilaments and related filaments; and Type V, lamins.

A filament composed of acidic and basic keratins (types I and II), typically expressed in epithelial cells. The keratins are the most diverse classes of IF proteins, with a large number of keratin isoforms being expressed. Each type of epithelium always expresses a characteristic combination of type I and type II keratins.

Cytoskeletal structure made from intermediate filaments, typically organized in the cytosol as an extended system that stretches from the nuclear envelope to the plasma membrane. Some intermediate filaments run parallel to the cell surface, while others traverse the cytosol; together they form an internal framework that helps support the shape and resilience of the cell.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

That part of a multicellular organism outside the cells proper, usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid.

A membrane-bounded organelle of eukaryotic cells in which chromosomes are housed and replicated. In most cells, the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes except the organellar chromosomes, and is the site of RNA synthesis and processing. In some species, or in specialized cell types, RNA metabolism or DNA replication may be absent.

Any of the various filamentous elements that form the internal framework of cells, and typically remain after treatment of the cells with mild detergent to remove membrane constituents and soluble components of the cytoplasm. The term embraces intermediate filaments, microfilaments, microtubules, the microtrabecular lattice, and other structures characterized by a polymeric filamentous nature and long-range order within the cell. The various elements of the cytoskeleton not only serve in the maintenance of cellular shape but also have roles in other cellular functions, including cellular movement, cell division, endocytosis, and movement of organelles.

All of the contents of a cell excluding the plasma membrane and nucleus, but including other subcellular structures.

Platelike region of a muscle sarcomere to which the plus ends of actin filaments are attached.

A membrane-bounded organelle of eukaryotic cells in which chromosomes are housed and replicated. In most cells, the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes except the organellar chromosomes, and is the site of RNA synthesis and processing. In some species, or in specialized cell types, RNA metabolism or DNA replication may be absent.

A type of intermediate filament found in the core of neuronal axons. Neurofilaments are heteropolymers composed of three type IV polypeptides: NF-L, NF-M, and NF-H (for low, middle, and high molecular weight). Neurofilaments are responsible for the radial growth of an axon and determine axonal diameter.

The long process of a neuron that conducts nerve impulses, usually away from the cell body to the terminals and varicosities, which are sites of storage and release of neurotransmitter.

A cytoskeletal structure that forms a distinct elongated structure, characteristically 10 nm in diameter, that occurs in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. Intermediate filaments form a fibrous system, composed of chemically heterogeneous subunits and involved in mechanically integrating the various components of the cytoplasmic space. Intermediate filaments may be divided into five chemically distinct classes: Type I, acidic keratins; Type II, basic keratins; Type III, including desmin, vimentin and others; Type IV, neurofilaments and related filaments; and Type V, lamins.

A filament composed of acidic and basic keratins (types I and II), typically expressed in epithelial cells. The keratins are the most diverse classes of IF proteins, with a large number of keratin isoforms being expressed. Each type of epithelium always expresses a characteristic combination of type I and type II keratins.

A complex cell-cell junction at which myofibrils terminate in cardiomyocytes; mediates mechanical and electrochemical integration between individual cardiomyocytes. The intercalated disc contains regions of tight mechanical attachment (fasciae adherentes and desmosomes) and electrical coupling (gap junctions) between adjacent cells.

Platelike region of a muscle sarcomere to which the plus ends of actin filaments are attached.

A lipid bilayer along with all the proteins and protein complexes embedded in it an attached to it.

The outer membrane of a muscle cell, consisting of the plasma membrane, a covering basement membrane (about 100 nm thick and sometimes common to more than one fiber), and the associated loose network of collagen fibers.

Cytoskeletal structure made from intermediate filaments, typically organized in the cytosol as an extended system that stretches from the nuclear envelope to the plasma membrane. Some intermediate filaments run parallel to the cell surface, while others traverse the cytosol; together they form an internal framework that helps support the shape and resilience of the cell.

A filament composed of acidic and basic keratins (types I and II), typically expressed in epithelial cells. The keratins are the most diverse classes of IF proteins, with a large number of keratin isoforms being expressed. Each type of epithelium always expresses a characteristic combination of type I and type II keratins.

Any of the various filamentous elements that form the internal framework of cells, and typically remain after treatment of the cells with mild detergent to remove membrane constituents and soluble components of the cytoplasm. The term embraces intermediate filaments, microfilaments, microtubules, the microtrabecular lattice, and other structures characterized by a polymeric filamentous nature and long-range order within the cell. The various elements of the cytoskeleton not only serve in the maintenance of cellular shape but also have roles in other cellular functions, including cellular movement, cell division, endocytosis, and movement of organelles.

A cytoskeletal structure that forms a distinct elongated structure, characteristically 10 nm in diameter, that occurs in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. Intermediate filaments form a fibrous system, composed of chemically heterogeneous subunits and involved in mechanically integrating the various components of the cytoplasmic space. Intermediate filaments may be divided into five chemically distinct classes: Type I, acidic keratins; Type II, basic keratins; Type III, including desmin, vimentin and others; Type IV, neurofilaments and related filaments; and Type V, lamins.

The outer membrane of a muscle cell, consisting of the plasma membrane, a covering basement membrane (about 100 nm thick and sometimes common to more than one fiber), and the associated loose network of collagen fibers.

Any of the various filamentous elements that form the internal framework of cells, and typically remain after treatment of the cells with mild detergent to remove membrane constituents and soluble components of the cytoplasm. The term embraces intermediate filaments, microfilaments, microtubules, the microtrabecular lattice, and other structures characterized by a polymeric filamentous nature and long-range order within the cell. The various elements of the cytoskeleton not only serve in the maintenance of cellular shape but also have roles in other cellular functions, including cellular movement, cell division, endocytosis, and movement of organelles.

The part of a cell encompassing the cell cortex, the plasma membrane, and any external encapsulating structures.

The basic structural and functional unit of all organisms. Includes the plasma membrane and any external encapsulating structures such as the cell wall and cell envelope.

A membrane-bounded organelle of eukaryotic cells in which chromosomes are housed and replicated. In most cells, the nucleus contains all of the cell's chromosomes except the organellar chromosomes, and is the site of RNA synthesis and processing. In some species, or in specialized cell types, RNA metabolism or DNA replication may be absent.

A small organelle enclosed by a single membrane, and found in most eukaryotic cells. Contains peroxidases and other enzymes involved in a variety of metabolic processes including free radical detoxification, lipid catabolism and biosynthesis, and hydrogen peroxide metabolism.

A multiribosomal structure representing a linear array of ribosomes held together by messenger RNA. They represent the active complexes in cellular protein synthesis and are able to incorporate amino acids into polypeptides both in vivo and in vitro.

Small region on the surface of a cell that anchors the cell to the extracellular matrix and that forms a point of termination of actin filaments.

A prolongation or process extending from a cell, e.g. a flagellum or axon.

A prolongation or process extending from a nerve cell, e.g. an axon or dendrite.

An electron dense body which may contain granules.

A macromolecular complex containing both protein and RNA molecules.

An intracellular structure that can catalyze gamma-tubulin-dependent microtubule nucleation and that can anchor microtubules by interacting with their minus ends, plus ends or sides.

The part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles but which does contain other particulate matter, such as protein complexes.

The membrane surrounding a cell that separates the cell from its external environment. It consists of a phospholipid bilayer and associated proteins.

An adherens junction which connects a cell to another cell.